The Intellectual Origins of Locke’s Political Philosophy

The Polish Constitution of May 3, 1791, drew inspiration from texts that were far from new—chief among them John Locke’s Second Treatise of Government, published in London in 1689–1690. This work, the second part of his Two Treatises of Government, offered a systematic rebuttal to royalist arguments like those of Sir Robert Filmer’s Patriarcha, which defended the divine right of kings. Instead, Locke’s Second Treatise explored the origins, extent, and purpose of civil government, becoming one of the most influential political texts in Western history.

Locke’s education at Oxford’s Christ Church College during Cromwell’s era immersed him in philosophy, natural science, and medicine. His intellectual development was shaped by René Descartes’ Meditations on First Philosophy (1641) and his association with Anthony Ashley Cooper, the 1st Earl of Shaftesbury, a leading Whig politician. After Shaftesbury’s failed plot against Charles II forced Locke into Dutch exile, he completed his seminal Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690).

The Revolutionary Core of the Second Treatise

Contrary to long-held assumptions, Locke’s Second Treatise was not a post hoc justification of England’s 1688 Glorious Revolution. Peter Laslett’s mid-20th-century research revealed it was largely written a decade earlier, in 1679–1680, as a theoretical blueprint for political change. While avoiding direct citations of Thomas Hobbes’ Leviathan, Locke engaged with similar questions: How does civil society emerge from the state of nature? What legitimizes government?

Locke’s vision of the state of nature was less bleak than Hobbes’ “war of all against all.” Humans, endowed with reason and natural rights (life, liberty, and property), form governments to protect these rights through collective consent. Unlike Hobbes, Locke argued that natural rights persist even after governments are established, including the right to resist tyranny.

The Mechanics of Government: Consent, Property, and Resistance

Locke’s theory of government rested on several key principles:
– Property as a Natural Right: Beyond material wealth, property encompassed life and liberty.
– The Social Contract: Governments derive legitimacy from the consent of the governed, acting as trustees rather than absolute rulers.
– Right to Rebellion: When governments violate natural law, citizens may dissolve the political bond.

Locke endorsed mixed government (combining monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy) and praised England’s system of checks and balances. Yet his optimism about human rationality coexisted with contradictions—most glaringly, his personal investment in the Royal African Company, which profited from the slave trade.

Locke’s Legacy: From Enlightenment to Modern Democracy

Locke’s ideas reverberated across Europe and America. His influence is evident in:
– The American Revolution (Jefferson’s “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness”).
– The French Enlightenment (Montesquieu’s separation of powers).
– Constitutional monarchies (the Glorious Revolution’s settlement).

Despite his era’s limitations—limited suffrage, colonial exploitation—Locke’s framework laid the groundwork for liberal democracy. His insistence on government by consent and the rule of law remains a cornerstone of modern political thought.

The Unfinished Revolution: Locke’s Paradoxes and Later Debates

Locke died in 1704, before Britain fully embraced parliamentary democracy. The Hanoverian kings and Prime Minister Robert Walpole’s patronage politics tested his ideals. Critics like Viscount Bolingbroke warned against corruption undermining constitutional balance, while Montesquieu refined Locke’s separation of powers into a tripartite system.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau, though indebted to Locke, radicalized his ideas. The Social Contract (1762) rejected representative government, advocating direct democracy and the “general will”—a concept with fraught implications for individual liberty.

Conclusion: Locke’s Enduring Relevance

Locke’s Second Treatise remains a foundational text for understanding constitutional government, natural rights, and the limits of state power. His vision—flawed yet revolutionary—continues to shape debates about freedom, equality, and the role of government in securing both. From Poland’s 1791 Constitution to today’s democracies, Locke’s legacy endures as a blueprint for just governance.