The Foundations of Colonial Society

British North America during the colonial period presented a complex mosaic of economic activities and cultural interactions that shaped early Canadian society. From the rugged Atlantic fisheries to the emerging agricultural settlements along the St. Lawrence River, European colonists established distinct ways of life that would leave lasting imprints on the Canadian landscape.

The colonial economy rested on several pillars: the cod fisheries of Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, the fur trade networks stretching deep into the interior, the timber industry supplying Britain’s naval needs, and the agricultural settlements that gradually transformed wilderness into productive farmland. These economic activities created different social structures in each region, reflecting the varied geography and resources of British North America.

The Fishermen’s Hardscrabble Existence

The Atlantic fisheries represented one of the earliest and most enduring European economic activities in Canada, dating back to John Cabot’s 1497 voyage. However, permanent fishing settlements only emerged after Britain solidified its control over North America. Newfoundland became the quintessential fishing colony, while Nova Scotia and New Brunswick developed mixed economies combining fishing with lumbering.

Life for settled fishermen differed markedly from their seasonal predecessors. As contract labor markets shrank and equipment costs rose, boat owners increasingly relied on family labor, transforming into ordinary fishermen. This economic shift forced fishing families to adopt diversified subsistence strategies:

– Growing potatoes and other crops
– Raising pigs and poultry
– Hunting game and gathering wild berries
– Supplemental seal hunting

The barter system largely replaced cash transactions, with fishermen trading their catch directly to merchants for necessities. Family units became self-contained economic entities where every member mastered multiple skills – from mending nets to processing fish, from shearing wool to packing pork barrels.

Gender roles remained sharply defined in fishing communities. Men handled fishing, logging, field work, hunting, and equipment repairs while women managed vegetable gardens, dairy cows, poultry, potato harvesting, berry picking, fish processing, haymaking, and household chores. Despite this relentless labor, most fishing families lived precariously near subsistence level.

Visitors to Trinity Bay in 1819 described crude single-story dwellings, with the best houses having wood siding while most were rough log constructions. The St. Lawrence Gulf fisheries faced similar challenges – unpredictable fish migrations, adverse weather affecting curing processes, and price fluctuations created constant instability. Merchants established control through advance payments, creating cycles of debt that kept fishing families in perpetual poverty, able to afford only basic imported necessities like molasses or iron tools.

Agricultural Life: From Seigneurial Quebec to Upper Canada’s Frontier

Agricultural development proceeded differently across the colonies, reflecting their varied histories and populations. Quebec’s long-established seigneurial system contrasted sharply with Upper Canada’s newly cleared frontier farms.

In Quebec’s St. Lawrence Valley, the French Canadian peasantry maintained traditional farming practices under British rule. The case of the Allaire family in Saint-Ours parish illustrates typical conditions:

– A narrow riverfront farm (100m x 730m) with 9 hectares divided into:
– 0.2 hectare vegetable garden
– 2.46 hectares meadow
– 6 hectares cropland (half fallow)
– Primary crops: wheat (2/3), oats (1/4), peas
– Livestock: 2 horses, 2 cows, 2 sheep, 2 pigs (1765)
– A crude single-room log house (5m long) with minimal furnishings

The agricultural calendar followed seasonal rhythms:

– April/May: plowing and planting
– Summer: haymaking, fence repairs, drainage work
– September: all-hands harvest
– Winter: butchering, spinning, weaving, threshing
– Late winter: maple sugaring

French Canadian demographic patterns showed high birth rates (47-52‰) and relatively low mortality, creating large families of 8-10 children. Marriage customs kept nearly all young adults wed by their mid-20s, with weddings typically in late fall or winter.

Despite British rule after 1760, French Canadians continued paying seigneurial dues and church tithes (1/26 of harvests), plus various fees for fishing, maple sugaring, and pew rents. These obligations consumed about half of annual surpluses, limiting wealth accumulation and contributing to Lower Canada’s agricultural stagnation compared to Upper Canada.

By the early 1800s, population pressure had subdivided farms into unsustainable small plots, forcing many young French Canadians into seasonal work like fur trading or urban trades. The once-dominant seigneurial system eroded as market connections grew – some prosperous farmers adopted European goods and inheritance practices favoring single heirs, while most struggled with debt and poverty.

Upper Canada presented a different frontier experience. Wealthy immigrants like Robert Wade from Durham County, England, could establish substantial farms quickly – purchasing 80 hectares near Lake Ontario in 1819, clearing 12 hectares within two years, and acquiring additional land grants. However, most immigrants lacked such capital:

– Lakefront land prices rose from 5 pence to 15 shillings per acre (1820s)
– Establishing a 100-acre farm required £150 capital
– One-third of farmers rented crown or clergy reserve lands
– Land speculation drove prices up 300% for cleared land by 1842

James Croil’s experience typified the struggles of poorer settlers. Arriving from Glasgow in 1845 with just 7 gold coins, he borrowed tools and seed from relatives, rented small farms, and through 16 years of labor eventually owned a £1,000 property. Frontier life demanded self-sufficiency:

– Home butchering and food preservation
– Bartering meat for services
– Homemade candles, soap, woolens
– Crude log shelters (5×7 meters) serving as all-purpose dwellings

Urban Centers: Hubs of Commerce and Culture

Colonial towns served as vital links between North America and Europe, growing rapidly between 1760-1840:

– 1760: Only 1/6 of population urban
– 1840: Multiple towns over 3,000 residents
– Montreal emerged as dominant city (40,000 by 1840)
– Quebec City, Halifax, York (Toronto) as regional centers

Urban functions expanded beyond commerce to include:

– Government administration
– Transportation hubs
– Cultural institutions (newspapers, schools)
– Professional services (law, medicine)

Montreal’s commercial district extended five blocks from the river, mixing:

– Warehouses and docks
– Retail shops and banks
– Artisan workshops
– Elite residences (like fur traders’ mansions on Mount Royal)

Smaller towns like Cobourg, Ontario, developed similar but scaled-down versions:

– 1837 population: ~1,000
– 14 grocery stores, 10 inns
– Various craftsmen and professionals
– Transportation links via steamship and stagecoach

Urban society showed growing stratification by the 1840s:

– Wealthy British merchants dominated commerce
– French Canadians concentrated in crafts and labor
– Ethnic/religious tensions (especially between Irish Protestants and Catholics)
– Emerging middle class promoting reform movements

Social Challenges and Cultural Transformations

Colonial society struggled with several endemic problems:

Alcohol abuse pervaded all regions:
– Whiskey common in Ontario/Quebec
– Cheap West Indies rum in Maritime provinces
– Mixed religious responses (Catholic tolerance vs. Protestant temperance)
– Failed prohibition attempts (New Brunswick 1853, 1856)

Violence and disorder appeared in various forms:
– Dueling persisted despite illegality (e.g., Joseph Howe’s 1840 duel)
– Sectarian riots (Orange vs. Green factions)
– Labor conflicts in timber trade (e.g., Shiners’ War in Ottawa Valley)

The colonial era also saw significant cultural developments:
– Blending of British and North American traditions
– Adaptation of European material culture to local conditions
– Emergence of distinct Canadian identities
– Growth of educational and cultural institutions

The Devastation of Indigenous Peoples

European expansion brought catastrophe for Canada’s First Nations through multiple vectors:

Western tribes suffered ecological collapse:
– Depletion of buffalo, beaver, and other game
– Transition from communal to family hunting territories
– Dependence on European trade goods

Disease epidemics ravaged populations:
– 1780s: 90% mortality among Chipewyans from smallpox
– 1818-20: Measles/whooping cough killed half of Assiniboine
– 1838: Smallpox killed 2/3 of Plains tribes

Coastal nations faced cultural assimilation:
– Mi’kmaq forced into farming and wage labor
– Residential school systems beginning
– Intermarriage and loss of traditional skills

The Métis emerged as a distinct people:
– Children of fur traders and Indigenous women
– Developed unique buffalo-hunting culture
– Became essential to fur trade logistics

By the mid-19th century, most Indigenous peoples had been confined to reserves or marginalized on the edges of colonial society, their traditional ways of life irreparably damaged by European expansion.

Conclusion: The Complex Legacy of Colonial Canada

British North America’s colonial period created the foundations of modern Canada through:

– The establishment of enduring economic patterns (fishing, forestry, agriculture)
– The development of distinct regional societies
– The creation of cultural institutions blending European and North American elements
– The tragic displacement and marginalization of Indigenous peoples

This complex legacy continues to shape Canadian society today, from its bilingual character to its regional differences, from its resource-based economy to its ongoing reconciliation efforts with First Nations. The colonial era’s mixture of adaptation, innovation, and conflict established patterns that would influence Canada’s development long after Confederation.