The Crumbling First Coalition and France’s Desperate Hour

Following their triumph at Toulon, the armies of revolutionary France strung together a series of dazzling victories that left the First Coalition in disarray. By April 1795, Prussia broke ranks, surrendering the Rhine’s left bank to France. The Dutch Revolution transformed the Netherlands into a French ally, yielding territory and 100 million guilders in reparations. Even Bourbon Spain relinquished Santo Domingo and withdrew from the conflict. As winter descended in 1795, the First Coalition teetered on collapse.

Yet Emperor Francis II of the Holy Roman Empire, spurred by British intrigue and his role as defender of the old order, refused to make peace with the revolutionary upstart. Rallying Sardinia, Russia and Britain, he launched a pincer movement against France through Germany and northern Italy. The Directory government faced catastrophe – bankrupt coffers, worthless paper currency (with 1000-franc notes worth less than the paper they were printed on), and starving Parisians receiving quarter-pound bread rations. Army warehouses stood empty; soldiers lacked uniforms, weapons, even shoes.

This crisis birthed an audacious plan from an unlikely source – the young artillery officer who had saved the government during the Vendémiaire uprising. Napoleon Bonaparte proposed abandoning the Directory’s planned Rhine offensive for a bold southern strike into Italy’s fertile plains. His vision: defeat the Austro-Sardinian alliance, liberate Lombardy, and ultimately threaten Vienna from the south. To skeptical generals accustomed to 18th-century limited warfare, this seemed madness. But Napoleon had spent years studying Italy’s terrain, even during his 1795 exile in the Topographical Bureau, where he refined plans to outflank Austria through Piedmont.

The Ragtag Army and Its Boy General

On March 2, 1796, the 27-year-old Corsican assumed command of the Army of Italy – a force more phantom than formidable. Of its nominal 106,000 troops, only 37,775 could be mustered for campaign, with barely 20 cannon. Soldiers wore rags, lacked rifles, and hadn’t been paid for months. One battalion recently mutinied over missing boots. The army’s four division commanders – Masséna, Augereau, Laharpe, and Sérurier – were hardened veterans who initially scorned their bookish commander.

Napoleon’s legendary confrontation with the hulking Augereau (“I’ll remove this height difference if you disrespect me”) may be apocryphal, but his psychological mastery was real. At their first meeting, he unnerved the generals through a calculated hat maneuver, establishing dominance without words. He then worked miracles: punishing mutineers, securing back pay from Genoese bankers, doubling meat rations, and delivering a rousing speech promising glory in Italy’s wealthy cities.

The army’s transformation was astounding. As Napoleon later reflected: “Hunger, privation and poverty are the best schools for soldiers.” These veterans of adversity would soon become instruments of his military revolution.

The Alpine Gambit: Breaking 18th-Century Rules

Facing 70,000 well-equipped Austro-Sardinian troops in fortified positions, Napoleon rejected conventional wisdom. The 71-year-old Austrian commander Beaulieu expected methodical siege warfare – the 18th-century norm where armies moved like chess pieces, avoiding decisive battles. Napoleon instead embraced mobility and annihilation.

In early April, he executed a daring flanking march through the Cadibona Pass (elevation: 1,800 feet), surprising the allies. As military theorist Jomini later marveled, Napoleon braved British naval bombardment to traverse this “natural fortification.” The move exemplified his new warfare:

– Logistical Revolution: Abandoning supply trains, soldiers carried eight days’ rations foraged from the land
– Strategic Tempo: Marching in divisional columns allowed rapid concentration
– Psychological Shock: “He was before us, behind us, on our flanks – we could never adapt,” confessed a captured Hungarian officer

Fifteen Days That Shook Europe

What followed was a masterclass in operational art:

April 12 – Montenotte: Splitting Austrian and Sardinian forces, Napoleon crushed General Argenteau’s 6,000 men, capturing 2,000 prisoners and 12 guns. The allies retreated in divergent directions – Beaulieu northeast to Dego, Colli northwest to Millesimo.

April 14-15 – Millesimo & Dego: In brutal fighting, the French captured 6,000 prisoners including 24 senior officers, plus 30 cannon. Young Colonel Lannes distinguished himself leading desperate uphill charges.

April 19-22 – Ceva & Mondovì: Turning on the isolated Sardinians, Napoleon forced Colli into full retreat after fierce clashes at San Michele and Mondovì. The 54-year-old General Sérurier led heroic bayonet charges, capturing 1,500 men including three generals.

By April 28, Sardinia capitulated at Cherasco. In fifteen days, Napoleon had:
– Won six battles
– Captured 21 colors and 55 guns
– Taken 15,000 prisoners
– Inflicted 10,000 casualties
– Conquered Piedmont’s richest provinces

His proclamation to the troops thundered: “You rushed like torrents down from the Apennines…without bread, without wine, without shoes!” The Directory, astonished, passed five consecutive decrees praising the Army of Italy.

The New Warfare’s Legacy

The Piedmont campaign revolutionized military science:

1. Mobility Over Fortifications: Napoleon bypassed Alpine strongholds instead of besieging them
2. Annihilation Over Attrition: His 12% casualty rate (vs. 18th-century norms of 21.9% for losers) achieved decisive results
3. Political Warfare: He leveraged victories to force Sardinia’s surrender, gaining Alpine passes and bases for future operations

As the young general told his staff: “We have only one method of making war – we must be the most audacious!” This audacity would soon carry him to Milan, then across Europe, forging an empire and transforming warfare forever. The Alpine campaign proved what revolutionary France could achieve when led by genius – a lesson Europe would learn repeatedly over the next two decades.