The Peculiar Nature of Occupation in Western and Central Europe
The relationship between occupiers and occupied in Western and Northern Europe during World War II followed a distinct pattern, with one notable exception in Eastern Europe: the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. Though its capital, Prague, lay west of Vienna and Stockholm, this region shared similarities with Western Europe in terms of limited resistance. Unlike in Eastern Europe, armed conflict was sporadic, and most civilians complied with German puppet governments.
A chilling example of Nazi brutality occurred in 1942 when the village of Lidice was arbitrarily destroyed. Hundreds of innocent villagers were either killed on the spot or later perished in concentration camps. Under the ambiguous terms of international agreements like the Hague and Geneva Conventions—designed to protect civilians—such actions were not explicitly prohibited. The assassination of Reinhard Heydrich, the Reich Protector of Bohemia and Moravia, and the subsequent sheltering of his killers by Czech families, gave the Nazis legal cover for retaliation. In essence, if resistance arose, occupiers could act with impunity.
The Italian Paradox: From Aggressor to Resistance
Italy’s role in World War II was uniquely contradictory. Initially a key Nazi ally and aggressor, it later became a victim of German occupation and even a hub of anti-fascist resistance. Mussolini’s regime, which predated Hitler’s rise by over a decade, had already established a reputation for brutality. Before Italy’s surrender in September 1943, the focus was not on resisting German occupation but on underground movements opposing Mussolini’s fascist state.
Italy’s early wartime actions were marked by unprovoked invasions—Ethiopia (1935), Spain (1936), Albania (1939), and Greece (1940)—all of which ended in military failures requiring German intervention. By 1943, Allied forces had invaded Sicily, leading to Mussolini’s arrest and Italy’s surrender. However, Germany swiftly occupied northern Italy, reinstating Mussolini as a puppet ruler. This period saw the rise of partisan movements, with nearly 50,000 Italian resistance fighters dying in the struggle against fascism and German forces.
Eastern Europe: The Bloodlands of Resistance and Repression
Eastern Europe during World War II was a battleground of unparalleled violence. Millions of soldiers, partisans, and civilians perished in a maelstrom of ethnic, political, and ideological conflicts. Unlike in the West, resistance here was not just about opposing Nazi occupation but also navigating complex inter-ethnic tensions and Soviet influence.
### The Baltic States: Between Soviet and Nazi Oppression
The Baltic nations—Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania—endured successive occupations by the USSR and Nazi Germany. Soviet annexation in 1940 triggered the first wave of guerrilla warfare, with “Forest Brothers” resisting Soviet rule. When Germany invaded in 1941, some Baltic partisans initially welcomed the Nazis as liberators, only to witness horrific atrocities against Jews and suspected communists. By 1944, anti-German resistance emerged, but it paled in comparison to the enduring anti-Soviet insurgency that lasted well into the 1950s.
### Poland: A Nation Under Dual Occupation
Poland’s resistance was extraordinary in scale and complexity. Caught between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, Poles fought not only for liberation but for national survival. The Polish Underground State, centered around the Home Army (Armia Krajowa), waged a relentless campaign against German forces. However, internal divisions—between nationalist, socialist, and communist factions—complicated the resistance.
The Warsaw Uprising of 1944 epitomized both the heroism and tragedy of Polish resistance. Despite fierce fighting, the lack of Soviet support doomed the rebellion, resulting in the deaths of 250,000 civilians and the near-total destruction of Warsaw. Meanwhile, Poland’s Jewish population faced annihilation, with limited aid from non-Jewish Poles, many of whom harbored antisemitic sentiments.
The Balkans: A Quagmire of Competing Resistances
The Balkans were a microcosm of Europe’s ideological and ethnic fractures. In Yugoslavia, communist partisans under Josip Broz Tito clashed with royalist Chetniks, while both fought German and Italian occupiers. Greece saw similar divisions between communist (ELAS) and republican (EDES) resistance groups.
One of the most audacious Allied operations in the Balkans was the destruction of the Gorgopotamos railway bridge in 1942, a joint effort by British SOE agents and Greek partisans. Yet, such cooperation was short-lived; post-liberation, these factions turned on each other, foreshadowing the region’s postwar conflicts.
Legacy and Modern Relevance
The resistance movements of World War II left an indelible mark on Europe’s political landscape. In the West, they bolstered postwar democratic institutions, while in the East, communist partisans often paved the way for Soviet-aligned regimes. The moral ambiguities of resistance—collaboration, vengeance, and survival—continue to shape national memories and historiographical debates.
From Lidice to Warsaw, from the Forest Brothers to Tito’s partisans, the stories of resistance remind us that World War II was not just a clash of armies but a struggle for identity, sovereignty, and human dignity. These narratives, fraught with heroism and tragedy, remain vital to understanding the complexities of occupation and the enduring spirit of defiance.