A Capital in Crisis: Foreigners, Rumors, and Imperial Flight
The year 1861 marked a turning point for the Qing Dynasty, as Beijing became a hotbed of anxiety and political intrigue. In March, Sir Frederick Bruce arrived as Britain’s first resident minister to the imperial capital—an event met with horror by locals who viewed Westerners as “barbaric cannibals” defiling the sacred heart of the empire. Emperor Xianfeng’s court had already fled to the mountain retreat of Rehe (Jehol), fueling rumors of abdication and collapse.
For the city’s Manchu bannermen—whose livelihoods depended entirely on imperial stipends—the emperor’s absence spelled disaster. Many faced destitution, their desperation becoming a quiet but potent force pushing for Xianfeng’s return. Meanwhile, wild speculation swirled about the emperor’s failing health, blamed alternately on Rehe’s harsh climate, his rumored decadence, or the alleged negligence of his favorite consort, the future Empress Dowager Cixi.
The Rehe Conspiracy: Power Struggles in the Shadow of Death
As Xianfeng’s health deteriorated, a silent battle for succession unfolded. The emperor had appointed eight regents to guide his young heir, but Cixi and co-dowager Ci’an foresaw danger. Their solution? An alliance with Prince Gong, Xianfeng’s politically astute brother left behind in Beijing to manage foreign relations.
Prince Gong’s secret journey to Rehe in August revealed a grim reality: the dying emperor was a puppet of conservative regents led by Prince Yi and Su Shun. When Xianfeng died on August 22, the regents proclaimed the new “Qixiang” era (“Auspicious Omen”), intending to rule indefinitely through the child emperor.
The Xinyou Coup: How Two Women and a Prince Rewrote History
What followed was a masterclass in political theater. While the regents lingered in Rehe, Prince Gong played the obedient servant—even accepting leadership of the new Zongli Yamen (foreign affairs office). Behind the scenes, the dowagers secured the imperial seal and drafted “posthumous edicts” stripping the regents of power.
The strike came in November:
– Prince Gong mobilized loyal troops in Beijing
– Seven regents were arrested upon their return
– Su Shun, caught unaware during the funeral procession, was dragged from his bed
The show trials that followed saw three regents sentenced to death—though Cixi “mercifully” commuted Su Shun’s punishment from lingchi (slow slicing) to beheading. Beijing’s crowds cheered the execution; Su Shun had been widely hated for his corruption.
The Tongzhi Restoration: A New Era of “Joint Governance”
With the regents eliminated, the dowagers and Prince Gong proclaimed the “Tongzhi” era (“Joint Rule”), signaling their power-sharing arrangement. Western powers cheered the coup, hoping for a more open China. Indeed, the new leadership:
– Established the Tongwen Guan (interpreters’ college) to study Western knowledge
– Pursued cooperation with foreign militaries against the Taiping Rebellion
– Stabilized governance through Prince Gong’s diplomatic finesse
Yet this was no liberal revolution. As historian Jonathan Spence notes, the Qing’s survival strategy involved “using barbarians to control barbarians” while maintaining Confucian orthodoxy.
The Taiping Shadow: Civil War and Its Aftermath
Even as the coup unfolded, the 14-year Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864) raged, claiming 20 million lives. The movement—led by the Christian-inspired Hong Xiuquan—had once controlled Nanjing and nearly toppled the dynasty. Its defeat in 1864 owed much to:
– Western-trained forces like the “Ever Victorious Army” under Charles Gordon
– Han officials like Zeng Guofan and Li Hongzhang who modernized regional armies
– Taiping infighting after Hong’s descent into megalomania
The rebellion’s legacy was paradoxical: it forced Qing military modernization but drained resources needed for broader reforms.
Cixi’s Ascent: From Concubine to Power Broker
The 26-year-old Cixi emerged as the coup’s quiet architect. Though Prince Gong initially dominated politics, her political instincts soon shone. When British envoy Thomas Wade later observed her “remarkable intelligence,” he glimpsed what would become a 47-year reign. The 1861 coup established patterns defining late Qing politics:
– Rule through imperial motherhood rather than direct sovereignty
– Balancing conservative Manchu elites with pragmatic Han officials
– Managing Western powers through controlled engagement
Conclusion: A Pivotal Year in China’s Modern Transformation
The events of 1861 reshaped China’s trajectory. The coup preserved the Qing but exposed its fragility; the Taiping’s defeat brought respite but no lasting solutions. As the dowagers and Prince Gong stabilized the regime, they unknowingly set the stage for both the Self-Strengthening Movement and the dynasty’s eventual collapse.
For modern historians, this period offers crucial insights into how traditional empires adapted (or failed to adapt) to the 19th century’s challenges. The survival strategies of 1861—elite coalitions, selective modernization, and managed openness—would echo through China’s turbulent journey to modernity.