The Twilight of the Tongzhi Reign

In November 1872, a pivotal moment arrived for China’s Qing Dynasty. The two empress dowagers—Cixi (Western Empress Dowager) and Ci’an (Eastern Empress Dowager)—jointly issued an edict announcing the end of their regency. The Tongzhi Emperor, having completed his education and reached adulthood at seventeen, would assume personal rule. The Imperial Astronomers selected an auspicious date—January 26, 1873—for the coronation ceremonies.

The edict struck a tone of cautious optimism: “With the southeast rebellions pacified though livelihoods remain unstable, and frontier military expenditures straining the treasury, we shall continue advising His Majesty when needed.” This carefully worded transition masked underlying tensions. The young emperor, strong-willed like his father Xianfeng and mother Cixi, chafed under maternal authority. His marriage to the virtuous Empress Alute—daughter of his tutor and a favorite of Ci’an—further alienated Cixi, who saw the couple’s independence as a threat.

A Reign Cut Short by Scandal and Disease

Tongzhi’s brief personal rule (1873-1874) became a study in imperial dysfunction. Rejecting ministerial advice, he frequented Beijing’s brothels with corrupt eunuchs like Wenxi and Guibao. When censor Gui Qing warned about the emperor’s debauchery, Cixi had him dismissed—a clear signal of her tacit approval. By 1874, Tongzhi contracted syphilis (officially recorded as smallpox) and the dowagers resumed regency. His October 1874 edict feigned gratitude: “We are deeply moved by the dowagers’ care in reviewing state affairs during our illness.”

The emperor’s death on January 13, 1875, precipitated a crisis. With no heir, succession debates exposed factional rifts:
– Pulun faction: Supported by Prince Gong, advocated for the eldest eligible descendant of the Daoguang Emperor
– Cixi’s faction: Backed her nephew Zaitian (future Guangxu Emperor), son of her brother-in-law Prince Chun

The Power Play That Redefined Qing Succession

Cixi’s maneuvering during the secret conclave at the Hall of Mental Cultivation revealed her political mastery:

1. Military Preparations: Deployed Ronglu’s bannermen and Li Hongzhang’s Huai Army to secure Beijing
2. Procedural Manipulation: Forced an open vote after Prince Gong challenged her violation of primogeniture
3. Symbolic Theater: Had the four-year-old Guangxu weep before Tongzhi’s coffin to legitimize the transfer

Her victory came at costs:
– Empress Alute’s suspected suicide (March 1875) sparked public outrage
– Censor Wu Ketu’s 1879 ritual suicide at Tongzhi’s tomb protested the irregular succession

The Guangxu Regency: A New Era of Maternal Rule

Cixi’s calculated concessions included:
– Symbolic Promises: Vowed Guangxu’s future son would posthumously inherit Tongzhi’s line
– Structural Changes: Allowed Prince Chun to resign rather than kowtow to his son
– Propaganda: Adopted “Glorious Succession” (Guangxu) as reign title to emphasize continuity

Yet the 1875 crisis established enduring patterns:
– Eunuch Networks: Corrupt officials like Li Lianying gained unprecedented influence
– Regional Tensions: Han officials like Li Hongzhang grew more powerful amid Manchu factionalism
– Constitutional Weakness: Precedent of sidelining adult emperors enabled Cixi’s 1898 coup against Guangxu

Legacy: The Fractured Mandate

Historians debate whether Tongzhi’s early death marked:
– A Missed Opportunity: Had he lived, Qing modernization might have progressed faster
– Structural Inevitability: Systemic corruption made imperial authority untenable

The succession crisis exposed Qing China’s fundamental dilemma—attempting modernization while preserving dynastic traditions. Cixi’s triumph in 1875 ensured her dominance for three more decades, but planted seeds for the 1911 revolution. As Jonathan Spence notes, “The Guangxu succession wasn’t just about one boy becoming emperor—it was the moment China’s old governance model became unsustainable.”

The 1875 transition remains eerily relevant today, illustrating how personal ambition, institutional decay, and succession uncertainties can destabilize even the most entrenched regimes.