The Historical Context of Christian Missions in Late Imperial China
Christian missionary activity in China during the late 19th century unfolded against a backdrop of profound political and cultural upheaval. Following the Opium Wars (1839–1842, 1856–1860), Western powers had forced the Qing Dynasty to sign unequal treaties, which included provisions protecting Christian missionaries and converts. However, these concessions bred resentment among Chinese officials and literati, who viewed Christianity as a destabilizing force undermining Confucian values.
By the 1890s, anti-missionary sentiment had reached a boiling point. Local gentry and officials often circulated pamphlets containing lurid accusations against missionaries—claims of eye-gouging for alchemy, soul-stealing through photography, and the drugging of women. These rumors, printed in government-sanctioned publications like Wei Yuan’s Illustrated Treatise on the Maritime Kingdoms (海国图志), fueled violent mob attacks across provinces like Hubei, Sichuan, and Fujian.
The 1890 Missionary Conference and the Birth of a Petition
At the 1890 General Conference of Protestant Missionaries in Shanghai, I (the anonymous author, likely a prominent missionary) delivered a paper warning of the “volcanic” tensions threatening to erupt. A seven-member committee—including figures like Dr. Allen, Bishop Moore, and Dr. Wherry—was formed to draft a petition to the Guangxu Emperor. The document sought to clarify missionaries’ humanitarian work (famine relief, medical aid) and demand religious freedom protections.
Delays plagued the effort until 1895, when the massacre of eleven Anglican missionaries (mostly women) in Sichuan shocked the world. This atrocity galvanized the committee to act. A condensed version of the petition, endorsed by twenty missionary leaders, was prepared for submission to the Zongli Yamen (China’s foreign affairs office).
Key Figures and Diplomatic Maneuvers
### Engaging with Li Hongzhang
In September 1895, I met the disgraced statesman Li Hongzhang, then sidelined after China’s defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War. Over dinner, Li lamented the Qing court’s ignorance of foreign affairs:
1. The emperor relied on a handful of reactionary advisors.
2. Officials dismissed Western learning as “devilish knowledge” (鬼子学).
3. The News Gazette (backed by anti-foreign Viceroy Zhang Zhidong) smeared reformers like Li.
Li advised lobbying Grand Councillor Weng Tonghe, the de facto power behind the throne, and provided a revised letter of introduction.
### Confronting the Zongli Yamen
On October 26, I confronted Weng Tonghe with physical evidence: government-published books spreading anti-Christian libel. One passage accused missionaries of mixing eyeballs with lead to forge silver; another claimed photographs “stole souls.” When Weng denied officials authored such texts, I cited prefaces by revered figures like Governor-General Zuo Zongtang—forcing him to concede.
Weng initially dismissed the appeal but grew intrigued when I framed religious freedom as a path to stability, citing China’s history of Buddhist-Daoist conflicts. He agreed to consider reforms if presented concisely.
### The Clash with Prince Gong
Prince Gong, the emperor’s uncle and a veteran negotiator of the 1860 Convention of Peking, proved hostile. At our October 30 meeting, he blamed missionaries for provoking violence like the 1870 Tianjin Massacre. Unintimidated, I rebutted his claims:
– The accusations were baseless.
– Missionaries had alleviated suffering during famines in Shandong and Manchuria.
– A commission of inquiry would prove Christian innocence.
To everyone’s surprise, Prince Gong’s adviser Li Hongzao later praised my candor: “No one dares speak to him this way.”
The Petition’s Demands and Obstacles
On November 14, 1895, Dr. Wherry and I formally submitted the petition with U.S. and British diplomatic support. Its key points:
1. Historical Grievances: Persecution continued despite treaty protections since 1842.
2. Humanitarian Contributions: Missionaries translated texts, provided famine relief, and promoted Western sciences.
3. Warning: Failure to protect missionaries risked foreign intervention.
4. Requests:
– An imperial edict condemning anti-Christian libel.
– Equal rights for Protestant and Catholic missions.
– Punishment for officials inciting violence.
Initially, the Zongli Yamen seemed receptive. However, French opposition (asserting exclusive “protectorate” rights over Catholics) and the withdrawal of key supporter Wang Mingluan stalled progress. By February 1896, only verbal assurances were secured—Weng promised to suppress libel but no edict materialized.
Cultural Impact and Legacy
### Seeds of Reform and Backlash
The petition failed to secure legal protections but exposed Qing officials to missionary perspectives. Ironically, the 1898 Hundred Days’ Reform—influenced by missionaries’ advocacy for Western learning—ended in a conservative backlash, culminating in the Boxer Rebellion (1899–1901).
### Modern Relevance
The crisis highlights enduring tensions between cultural sovereignty and religious freedom. Contemporary China’s regulation of Christianity echoes Qing-era suspicions of foreign influence, while the missionaries’ humanitarian arguments foreshadowed modern NGO diplomacy.
Conclusion
The 1890s missionary petitions were a bold attempt to bridge civilizations amid mutual distrust. Though unsuccessful, they laid groundwork for intercultural dialogue—a reminder that understanding, not force, ultimately resolves clashes of belief. As Li Hongzhang ruefully noted, China’s resistance to change only invited greater crises, a lesson with timeless resonance.