The Gathering Storm: Reformers vs Conservatives in Late Imperial China
The summer of 1898 marked a pivotal moment in China’s long imperial history. Emperor Guangxu, the nominal ruler of the Qing dynasty, found himself locked in a deadly political struggle with his formidable aunt, the Empress Dowager Cixi. What began as an ambitious reform movement would soon descend into betrayal, bloodshed, and the complete reversal of China’s last major attempt at self-strengthening before revolution.
China in the late 19th century was a nation in crisis. Following humiliating defeats in the Opium Wars and the recent loss to Japan in 1895, progressive officials recognized the urgent need for modernization. The young Emperor Guangxu, influenced by reformist scholars like Kang Youwei, embarked on an unprecedented series of changes known as the Hundred Days’ Reform. Between June and September 1898, Guangxu issued over 40 edicts targeting education, government structure, the military, and industry.
The Reform Movement Gains Momentum
The reform program represented China’s most comprehensive modernization attempt since the Self-Strengthening Movement decades earlier. Guangxu established new schools teaching Western subjects, streamlined the bloated bureaucracy, and promoted industrialization. Most radically, he challenged the traditional examination system that had governed Chinese officialdom for centuries.
However, these sweeping changes threatened powerful conservative interests. The Empress Dowager Cixi, though officially retired to the Summer Palace, remained the true power behind the throne. Conservative officials rallied to her side, portraying the reforms as dangerous Westernization that would undermine Chinese tradition. As tensions mounted, both sides began preparing for confrontation.
The September Crisis: Plots and Counterplots
By early September 1898, the political situation had reached breaking point. Reformers, fearing conservative backlash, urged Guangxu to strike first. Their plan allegedly involved arresting Cixi and eliminating her key supporters, particularly Ronglu, the newly appointed Viceroy of Zhili.
The reformers pinned their hopes on Yuan Shikai, commander of the modernized New Army. On September 18, Guangxu summoned Yuan to the Forbidden City, ordering him to kill Ronglu and then surround the Summer Palace. This moment would determine the fate of China’s reforms.
The Betrayal That Changed History
Yuan Shikai faced the defining decision of his career. After careful consideration, he chose loyalty to the established power structure over the reformist cause. On September 20, Yuan revealed the plot to Ronglu, who immediately informed Cixi. The Empress Dowager acted swiftly, returning to the Forbidden City with minimal escort and placing Guangxu under house arrest.
The coup unfolded with remarkable ease. Guangxu offered no resistance as his aunt resumed control of government. The swiftness of Cixi’s victory revealed the shallow roots of reform support among China’s official class. Most bureaucrats quickly switched allegiance to the restored regime.
The Aftermath: Reversal and Repression
The conservative backlash was immediate and brutal. On September 28, six prominent reformers including Kang Youwei’s brother were executed at Caishikou execution ground in Beijing. Known as the “Six Gentlemen of the Hundred Days’ Reform,” they faced death with remarkable courage, denouncing Cixi until the end.
Guangxu was forced to issue edicts repudiating his own reforms. One humiliating decree claimed the emperor had never intended radical change, blaming overzealous officials for misinterpretation. Most reforms were reversed, though a few institutions like Peking University survived.
International Repercussions and Rising Tensions
The failed reforms had significant international consequences. Foreign powers, particularly Japan, had supported the reform movement. The violent suppression damaged China’s international standing and increased foreign skepticism about Qing capacity for self-modernization.
Anti-foreign sentiment grew among conservatives emboldened by Cixi’s victory. In October, attacks on foreigners occurred near Beijing, prompting foreign legations to request military protection. The situation foreshadowed the more widespread Boxer violence two years later.
The Imprisoned Reformer: Guangxu’s Lonely Exile
Guangxu spent the remainder of his life under strict confinement, first on an island in the Forbidden City’s Zhongnanhai complex, later at the Summer Palace. Cixi circulated rumors of his poor health to justify her continued regency, though foreign doctors confirmed he remained physically sound.
The emperor became a tragic figure, forced to endorse policies contrary to his beliefs. His only solace was the hope of outliving his aunt and regaining power. Guangxu reportedly vowed revenge, particularly against Yuan Shikai, but would never get the chance. He died under suspicious circumstances in 1908, just one day before Cixi’s own death.
Legacy of the Failed Reforms
The collapse of the Hundred Days’ Reform had profound consequences for China. It demonstrated the Qing dynasty’s inability to reform from within, convincing many intellectuals that revolution rather than reform was necessary. The events of 1898 discredited gradual modernization and strengthened radical alternatives.
Key figures like Kang Youwei fled abroad, where they continued advocating constitutional monarchy. Yuan Shikai’s betrayal marked him as both a survivor and opportunist, traits that would characterize his later presidency. The failed reforms also deepened foreign powers’ skepticism about Qing leadership, contributing to the imperialist pressures that would soon erupt in the Boxer Rebellion.
Conclusion: A Turning Point in Chinese History
The 1898 coup represented more than just a palace power struggle. It marked the failure of China’s last major attempt to modernize while preserving imperial institutions. The brutal suppression of reform discredited the Qing government among progressive elites and commoners alike, paving the way for the revolutionary movements that would topple the dynasty just thirteen years later.
The tragic story of Guangxu’s thwarted reforms serves as a poignant reminder of the challenges facing reformist leaders in conservative systems. His defeat ensured that China’s next major transformation would come not through imperial decree, but through revolution. The events of September 1898 thus represent a crucial pivot point between China’s imperial past and its revolutionary future.