The Precarious Throne: Qing Dynasty at the Crossroads
The late 19th century found China’s Qing Dynasty in a state of unprecedented crisis. Following humiliating defeats in the Opium Wars and the devastating loss to Japan in the 1894-1895 Sino-Japanese War, the empire stood at a crossroads. Emperor Guangxu, though nominally ruling since 1875, remained overshadowed by his formidable aunt, the Empress Dowager Cixi, who had effectively controlled the government through regencies and behind-the-scenes manipulation.
This power dynamic created a tense atmosphere in the imperial court. While Cixi represented conservative forces resistant to change, the young emperor increasingly surrounded himself with reform-minded advisors like Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao. The stage was set for a dramatic confrontation between reform and tradition, between imperial ambition and entrenched power.
The Hundred Days’ Reform and Its Opponents
In June 1898, Emperor Guangxu launched what would become known as the Hundred Days’ Reform, issuing a flurry of edicts aimed at modernizing China’s government, military, and education system. These sweeping changes threatened the interests of conservative Manchu elites and provincial officials who benefited from the status quo.
The reform movement faced its most formidable opponent in Empress Dowager Cixi. Though initially allowing the reforms to proceed, she grew increasingly alarmed as they challenged traditional Confucian values and threatened the power structure that maintained her authority. By late July 1898, tensions reached a breaking point as Cixi and her conservative allies, including powerful general Ronglu, began secret discussions about retaking direct control of the government.
The Fateful August Decisions
The critical month of August 1898 saw a series of clandestine maneuvers that would determine China’s political future. On August 1, Emperor Guangxu summoned Yuan Shikai, a rising military commander, to the Summer Palace for a secret audience. Yuan, then just forty years old, had risen rapidly through the ranks despite criticism over his role in events leading to the Sino-Japanese War.
During their meeting, Yuan impressed the emperor with his apparent support for reform. Guangxu, increasingly aware of his precarious position, saw in Yuan a potential ally who could help counterbalance Cixi’s power. The emperor promoted Yuan to vice-president of the Board of War and put him in charge of military training, a move that would prove fateful.
Meanwhile, reform leaders including Kang Youwei and Tan Sitong developed a desperate plan: they would have Yuan Shikai execute Ronglu in Tianjin, then march troops back to Beijing to surround Cixi in the Summer Palace. This risky strategy reflected the reformers’ understanding that without military support, their movement would remain vulnerable to conservative opposition.
The Emperor’s Secret Orders
On September 16, in what would be their final meeting, Emperor Guangxu gave Yuan Shikai explicit instructions in the dimly lit Hall of Heavenly Purity. The emperor handed Yuan an arrow as token of his authority and ordered him to eliminate Ronglu before leading troops back to Beijing. Guangxu also prepared an edict appointing Yuan as acting Viceroy of Zhili upon completion of the mission.
Yuan’s outward show of loyalty masked his true intentions. After leaving the Forbidden City, he proceeded directly to Tianjin where he betrayed the emperor’s trust in dramatic fashion. Meeting with Ronglu, his sworn brother, Yuan revealed the entire plot. This act of betrayal would alter the course of Chinese history.
The Empress Dowager Strikes Back
Armed with knowledge of the conspiracy, Ronglu rushed back to Beijing and alerted Cixi. The Empress Dowager reacted with characteristic decisiveness. On September 21, 1898, she launched a palace coup, confining Guangxu to Ocean Terrace, a small island in the palace’s South Lake. The emperor would remain there, a prisoner in gilded captivity, until his death a decade later.
Cixi issued edicts in the emperor’s name announcing her resumption of power and began systematically dismantling the reform program. Key reformers fled or were arrested; six prominent figures including Tan Sitong were executed, becoming known as the “Six Gentlemen of the Hundred Days’ Reform.” Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao escaped to Japan, where they would continue advocating for reform from exile.
The Aftermath and Historical Legacy
The failure of the Hundred Days’ Reform had profound consequences for China. Cixi’s conservative restoration delayed meaningful modernization, contributing to the dynasty’s weakness in the face of growing foreign pressure and domestic discontent. The Boxer Rebellion and subsequent foreign intervention in 1900 further weakened the Qing, setting the stage for its eventual collapse in 1911.
Yuan Shikai’s betrayal marked the beginning of his rise to power. Though temporarily sidelined after Guangxu’s death, he would eventually become president of the new Republic of China before attempting to restore the monarchy with himself as emperor. The bitter irony wasn’t lost on contemporaries that the man who helped crush reform in 1898 would later position himself as a modernizing force.
The 1898 crisis also demonstrated the enduring tension between reform and tradition in Chinese politics. Guangxu’s attempt at top-down modernization from within the imperial system failed because it threatened too many powerful interests too quickly. This pattern would repeat throughout 20th century Chinese history as various leaders attempted to balance change with stability.
Modern Reflections on a Pivotal Moment
Today, historians view the Hundred Days’ Reform and its suppression as a critical missed opportunity for China. The reforms proposed in 1898—modern education, government restructuring, military modernization—would all eventually be implemented, but the delay proved costly. China’s subsequent century of upheaval might have followed a different course had the reforms succeeded.
The personal tragedy of Emperor Guangxu also continues to resonate. Recent forensic tests on his remains confirmed long-held suspicions that he was poisoned, likely on Cixi’s orders, just before her own death in 1908. His thwarted reign stands as a poignant reminder of how individual lives become entangled with larger historical forces.
The 1898 crisis remains relevant as China continues to navigate questions about reform, tradition, and the pace of change. The complex interplay of personalities, principles, and power dynamics that shaped these events offers enduring lessons about the challenges of governance during periods of rapid transformation.