The Warlord Landscape and Origins of Conflict
The early 1920s marked a turbulent period in Chinese history, as regional warlords vied for control following the collapse of centralized Qing rule. The 1924 Beijing Coup (also called the Capital Revolution) emerged from this fractured landscape, where the Zhili and Fengtian cliques dominated northern China.
Feng Yuxiang, the coup’s architect, represented a unique figure among warlords. Born in 1882 to a low-ranking military family, his career trajectory—from Qing-era soldier to Republican commander—mirrored China’s tumultuous transition. By 1924, Feng commanded the Zhili clique’s Third Route Army but harbored growing resentment toward his superior, Wu Peifu. Their rivalry stemmed from Wu’s 1922 decision to strip Feng of his Henan governorship, relegating him to the powerless position of Army Inspector. This “promotion in title but demotion in reality” left Feng without territory, troops, or reliable funding—a slight that would have profound consequences.
The Perfect Storm: Triggers and Execution
Three critical factors converged to enable the coup:
1. Internal Zhili Fractures: Wu Peifu’s authoritarian leadership alienated key commanders. Feng secretly allied with Hu Jingyi (Shaanxi 1st Division) and Sun Yue (Beijing Garrison Deputy Commander), forming an anti-Wu faction.
2. External Alliances: The “Triangular Alliance” of Sun Yat-sen, Duan Qirui, and Zhang Zuolin provided covert support. Japanese agents, including future Premier Huang Fu, also encouraged Feng’s rebellion.
3. Military Opportunity: During the Second Zhili-Fengtian War (September-November 1924), Wu assigned Feng to defend remote Jehol Province—a deliberate move to isolate his forces.
On October 22-23, Feng executed his plan with precision:
– Hu Jingyi severed railway lines to block Zhili reinforcements
– Sun Yue opened Beijing’s gates to Feng’s troops
– President Cao Kun was imprisoned in Zhongnanhai’s Yanqing Tower
– Communications hubs and government buildings were seized within hours
Cultural Shockwaves: Expelling the Last Emperor
Beyond toppling Cao’s regime, Feng made a revolutionary cultural move—expelling Puyi, the Qing dynasty’s last emperor, from the Forbidden City on November 5. The 1912 abdication agreement had allowed Puyi to retain imperial titles and reside in the palace, creating what Feng called “a pigtail on modern China.”
The revised Articles of Favorable Treatment stipulated:
– Permanent abolition of Puyi’s imperial status
– Confiscation of state-owned palace assets
– A $2 million fund for impoverished Manchus
– Relocation to Prince Chun’s Mansion
This act, praised by Sun Yat-sen as “completing the 1911 Revolution’s unfinished work,” sparked international controversy but resonated with Chinese citizens weary of imperial nostalgia.
Legacy and Historical Reassessment
The coup’s aftermath revealed its limitations:
– Short-Term Outcomes: Feng’s new National Army grew to 80,000 men, but real power shifted to Zhang Zuolin and Duan Qirui
– Strategic Miscalculations: The Zhili collapse created a vacuum that strengthened Japanese-backed Fengtian forces
– Communist Perspective: The CCP viewed it as inter-warlord conflict, though it inadvertently aided revolutionary mobilization
Yet its progressive elements endure:
1. Symbolic Republicanism: Puyi’s expulsion definitively ended China’s imperial tradition
2. Northern Expedition Prelude: Created conditions for the 1926-28 unification campaign
3. Military Modernization: Feng’s Soviet-trained National Army later played key anti-Japanese roles
As historian Diana Lary notes, the coup exemplified how “personal rivalries could reshape national politics” in warlord China—a chaotic yet transformative episode in the Republic’s struggle for stability.
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