A Civilization Confident in Its Superiority

For three and a half centuries before the mid-19th century, Western merchants, missionaries, and diplomats arriving in China encountered a civilization supremely confident in its cultural superiority. The Chinese imperial court and scholar-official class viewed all foreigners through the lens of their ancient “hua-yi” distinction – the civilized Chinese (“hua”) versus the barbarian outsiders (“yi”). This worldview stemmed from China’s historical experience as the dominant power in East Asia, surrounded by smaller states that paid tribute to the Middle Kingdom.

Official documents consistently referred to Westerners as “yi” (barbarians) rather than “wai guo ren” (foreigners) until the 1860 Convention of Peking forcibly prohibited the term. This linguistic shift marked a reluctant concession to Western military power rather than any genuine change in Chinese attitudes. As one 19th century observer noted, even after the Western powers demonstrated their technological and military advantages, Chinese officials maintained “an air of unthinking condescension” toward foreign visitors.

The Roots of Chinese Cultural Confidence

China’s sense of civilizational superiority developed over millennia of being the dominant regional power. Unlike Europe’s competitive state system, China existed in what historians call the “tribute system” – a hierarchical international order where neighboring states like Korea, Vietnam, and the Ryukyu Islands acknowledged Chinese supremacy through ritual submission.

The Confucian scholar-gentry class cultivated this worldview through:
– The civil examination system that rewarded mastery of classical Chinese texts
– The concept of the “Mandate of Heaven” legitimizing Chinese imperial rule
– Geographic isolation that limited exposure to competing civilizations

When Portuguese traders first arrived in the 16th century, Chinese officials simply incorporated them into the existing tribute framework. The Jesuit Matteo Ricci spent years mastering Confucian classics before gaining limited acceptance at the Ming court – a pattern that would repeat for centuries.

The Collision of Two Worldviews

The 19th century Opium Wars forced a dramatic confrontation between Chinese and Western perspectives:

### The Clothing Divide
Western visitors found Chinese robes “baggy and restrictive,” while Chinese observers ridiculed European attire:
– Tight-fitting coats that revealed body contours (considered indecent)
– Useless decorative buttons on tailcoats
– Women’s fashions that violated Chinese modesty standards

### Language Barriers
Even illiterate Chinese laborers felt superior to foreigners who couldn’t understand local dialects. The complex Chinese writing system became a point of cultural pride, with scholars dismissing Western alphabets as primitive.

### Technological Disdain
While acknowledging Western mechanical inventions, Chinese officials often viewed them as:
– Clever tricks rather than meaningful advancements
– Practical tools to be used without adopting foreign values
– Possibly stolen from ancient Chinese knowledge (a common belief among scholars)

The Turning Point: Western Military Superiority

The 1860 British occupation of Beijing shattered China’s illusion of invulnerability but didn’t immediately change cultural attitudes. As historian John Fairbank observed, “China had to be beaten repeatedly before it would change.” Key moments included:
– The unequal treaty system forcing open Chinese ports
– The failure of the Self-Strengthening Movement (1861-1895)
– China’s defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895)

Yet even in defeat, many scholar-officials maintained cultural confidence. As one Qing official remarked when told of British moral claims: “I am profoundly shocked.”

The Legacy of Cultural Confidence in Modern China

The tension between Chinese civilizational identity and Western influence continues today in various forms:

### The Scholar-Official Mentality Persists
China’s modern technocratic elite often display the same pattern as their imperial predecessors – adopting foreign technology while resisting cultural influence.

### The “Century of Humiliation” Narrative
Modern Chinese historiography emphasizes 19th century defeats while downplaying earlier cultural confidence, creating a complex national psychology.

### New Forms of Civilizational Discourse
Contemporary discussions of “socialism with Chinese characteristics” and the “China model” echo traditional claims of unique civilizational superiority.

As China re-emerges as a global power, understanding this deep historical context remains essential for meaningful cross-cultural engagement. The “barbarian” designation may have disappeared from official documents, but its cultural echoes still influence China’s relationship with the world.