The Rise of the Barbary States

For over three centuries, the coastal cities of Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli dominated Mediterranean politics through a combination of naval terror and shrewd diplomacy. Emerging as semi-autonomous provinces under the Ottoman Empire in the early 16th century, these so-called Barbary States transformed piracy into a state-sponsored enterprise. Their fleets, though modest compared to European naval powers, struck fear into merchant vessels from England to Italy.

The roots of this system trace back to the chaotic power vacuum following the Reconquista’s completion in 1492. As Spain expelled Muslim rulers from Iberia, many refugees—including skilled sailors—relocated to North Africa. Among them were the legendary Barbarossa brothers, Aruj and Hayreddin, who established Algiers as a pirate stronghold. By 1518, Hayreddin had pledged allegiance to the Ottoman Sultan, receiving military support in exchange for nominal fealty. This alliance gave Barbary corsairs both legitimacy and access to advanced naval technology.

Europe’s Shameful Accommodation

European nations responded not with coordinated resistance but with a patchwork of bribes and alliances that emboldened the pirates. France, seeking to counter Spanish influence, became Algiers’ earliest Christian ally. Cardinal Richelieu famously quipped, “If Algiers didn’t exist, we would have to invent it.” The Dutch and English followed suit, with London even subsidizing pirate attacks against rival nations during the Anglo-Dutch Wars.

Diplomatic humiliations became routine:
– In 1740, the Bey of Tunis forced the French consul to kiss his hand at swordpoint
– Denmark abandoned plans for a consulate after being extorted for 15,000 gold coins
– Venice paid 40,000 gold pieces for peace despite military victories
– The young United States surrendered $50,000 and naval supplies in the 1795 Treaty of Tripoli

The Machinery of Terror

Contrary to European propaganda depicting limitless pirate hordes, Algiers’ peak naval strength in 1719 consisted of just 25 galleys (19-60 guns each) supplemented by smaller vessels. Their real power lay in psychological warfare and European disunity. As one Dutch observer noted:

“Their ship maintenance is astonishing given minimal state funding… When they obtain enough timber for a keel, they complete vessels using captured ships’ remains. They’ve mastered turning disadvantages into strengths.”

This modest fleet extracted staggering concessions:
– The Dutch paid 450 barrels of gunpowder, 2,500 muskets, and naval stores for a three-year truce in 1712
– Spain spent 100,000 piastres annually for “protection”
– Britain surrendered the right to search its own merchant ships in multiple treaties

The Human Cost

Behind the diplomatic farce lay a brutal slave economy. Between 1580-1680, corsairs captured an estimated 1 million Europeans, with:
– 400 British ships seized between 1618-1622 alone
– 3,000 English slaves languishing in Algiers by the 1640s
– Ransom prices ranging from 200 (Scottish women) to 1,390 pounds (skilled artisans)

Firsthand accounts reveal the horror:
– Reverend Devereux Spratt described captives “broken in spirit, abandoned by God and country”
– William Okeley escaped using a makeshift canoe hidden in wine barrels
– 70 slaves once fought their way to freedom by carrying a ship across harbor ropes

Failed European Responses

Half-hearted military campaigns only reinforced pirate dominance:
– 1620: Sir Robert Mansell’s 18-ship squadron achieved nothing
– 1655: Admiral Blake burned Tunisian ships but slaves were soon replaced
– 1784: A Spanish-led coalition retreated after two weeks of desultory bombardment

The sole successful operation came in 1671 when Sir Edward Spragg destroyed Algiers’ fleet using fireships—prompting the Janissaries to murder their own leader and sue for peace. Yet within five years, Britain was again paying tribute.

The System’s Collapse

Three factors finally ended Barbary dominance:
1. Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815): European navies expanded dramatically
2. American Resolve: The 1815 Battle of Derna and Decatur’s squadron forced favorable terms
3. French Conquest: The 1830 invasion of Algiers eliminated the pirate base

Legacy of the Barbary Wars

This forgotten conflict shaped international law, with concepts like “freedom of navigation” and “state-sponsored terrorism” tracing their origins to Mediterranean struggles. The U.S. Marine Corps hymn’s “shores of Tripoli” commemorates this era, while European archives still blush at centuries of capitulation. As historian Sir Lambert Playfair concluded:

“No amount of political expediency can excuse the moral cowardice that let pirates dictate terms to civilizations.” The Barbary saga remains history’s most striking example of how psychological dominance can overcome material weakness—a lesson with enduring relevance in asymmetric warfare.