The Warlord Landscape of 1920s China

The early 1920s in China represented a period of profound fragmentation and conflict, with regional warlords establishing semi-autonomous regimes across the country. In Northeast China, the Fengtian Clique under Zhang Zuolin had emerged as one of the most powerful military factions following the Zhili-Fengtian Wars. This complex political environment set the stage for one of the most significant internal conflicts within the Fengtian faction – the rebellion led by Guo Songling and the subsequent Battle of Juliu River.

Guo Songling, a respected military strategist who had trained at Japan’s Imperial Japanese Army Academy, found himself increasingly at odds with Zhang Zuolin’s leadership. The tensions came to a head after the Second Zhili-Fengtian War (1924), when Guo felt slighted by Zhang’s distribution of rewards and territories. While other commanders like Li Jinglin and Zhang Zongchang received provincial governorships, Guo was passed over – a decision that would have far-reaching consequences for Northeast China.

The Outbreak of Guo Songling’s Rebellion

On November 22, 1925, Guo Songling made his dramatic break from Zhang Zuolin, issuing a proclamation to “return to Fengtian” with his troops. What followed was a month-long military campaign that would determine the fate of Northeast China. Guo’s forces began their eastward march from their positions near the Great Wall, but immediately encountered significant logistical challenges.

The retreating Fengtian troops had systematically destroyed railways and bridges along Guo’s potential advance routes. This forced Guo’s army to undertake a grueling winter march through snow-covered terrain, significantly slowing their progress. After capturing Jinzhou on December 5, Guo made the fateful decision to pause for three days of rest and reorganization when he arrived on December 8. This pattern repeated after taking Baiqipu on December 13, with another period of rest before finally reaching Xinmin on December 20.

These delays proved strategically crucial. While Guo’s forces encountered little resistance during their two-week advance from Jinzhou to Xinmin, the pauses allowed Zhang Zuolin precious time to consolidate his defenses along the eastern bank of the Juliu River. The stage was set for a decisive confrontation between the rebel forces and the Fengtian loyalists.

Zhang Zuolin’s Countermobilization

Zhang Zuolin used the time bought by Guo’s delays to remarkable effect. The Fengtian leader orchestrated a comprehensive military and diplomatic response that would ultimately determine the battle’s outcome. Key elements of Zhang’s strategy included:

1. Military Consolidation: Zhang mobilized forces from Jilin, Heilongjiang, and Rehe provinces, forming two new infantry brigades to bolster his defenses.

2. Japanese Collaboration: In a controversial move, Zhang secured Japanese support, ensuring his rear areas were protected while gaining access to the South Manchuria Railway for rapid troop transport.

3. Logistical Preparation: With Japanese financial assistance, Zhang equipped his soldiers with new winter uniforms, leather coats, and ample supplies of food and cigarettes. He deployed the full arsenal of the Fengtian Armory’s newest weapons and ammunition.

4. Morale Boosting: Zhang sent senior officers to the frontlines with promises of promotions and two months’ extra pay in silver dollars, significantly boosting troop morale.

By the time Guo’s forces reached the Juliu River, Zhang had assembled an impressive defensive force of approximately 80,000 troops organized into three main commands:

– Central Army under Zhang Xueliang (Zhang Zuolin’s son)
– Left Wing commanded by Wu Junsheng
– Right Wing led by Zhang Zuoxiang

The contrast between the two armies at Juliu River could not have been starker. While Zhang’s forces were well-equipped, well-fed, and motivated, Guo’s troops were exhausted from their long march, undersupplied, and increasingly homesick as they neared their native Fengtian.

The Decisive Battle at Juliu River

The climactic battle began on December 22, 1925, when Fengtian forces launched a fierce assault on Guo’s positions north of Xinmin. The rebel forces suffered heavy casualties, with an entire brigade captured including its commander, An Yuzhen. That night, Guo ordered a full counterattack, but the operation was fatally compromised by the betrayal of his chief of staff, Zou Zuohua.

Zou had secretly removed the fuses from artillery shells, rendering Guo’s most significant military advantage useless. When the rebel artillery opened fire, the shells failed to explode, leaving Fengtian positions intact. Guo’s infantry assaults, meanwhile, met with stubborn resistance from the well-prepared Fengtian defenders.

On December 23, the Fengtian forces launched a comprehensive counteroffensive, combining artillery barrages with aerial bombing – one of the earliest uses of air power in Chinese civil conflicts. Despite Guo’s personal leadership at the front lines, his forces began to collapse. The final blow came when Wu Junsheng’s cavalry outflanked Guo’s headquarters at Baiqipu.

The next morning, Guo and his wife attempted to flee south by cart but were captured by Fengtian cavalry. Upon receiving news of the capture, Zhang Zuolin immediately ordered their execution, bringing a brutal end to the month-long rebellion.

The Aftermath and Historical Significance

The defeat of Guo Songling’s rebellion had profound implications for Northeast China and the broader warlord conflicts of the period. Contemporary publications like The Eastern Miscellany analyzed the rebellion as symptomatic of the warlord system’s inherent instability, where “warlords expand their armies to satisfy personal ambitions, and army expansion leads to war.” The unequal distribution of rewards after victories created internal fractures that often led to mutinies like Guo’s.

While Guo’s motivations included personal grievances, his rebellion also represented a more progressive vision compared to Zhang Zuolin’s militaristic rule. Guo had advocated for democratic government, economic development, and tax reform – positions that garnered sympathy from reform-minded intellectuals.

The battle’s outcome solidified Zhang Zuolin’s control over Northeast China but also revealed the growing tensions within the Fengtian Clique. It set the stage for the complex realignments of 1926, when former enemies Zhang Zuolin and Wu Peifu would join forces against the National Army (Guominjun) in the name of “anti-communism.”

The Battle’s Legacy in Modern Chinese History

The Battle of Juliu River represents a critical turning point in China’s warlord era, illustrating several key historical dynamics:

1. The fragility of warlord alliances based on personal loyalty rather than institutional structures
2. The growing importance of modern military technology (artillery, air power) in Chinese civil conflicts
3. The intervention of foreign powers (particularly Japan) in China’s internal affairs
4. The emerging ideological divide between conservative militarists and reformist officers

The rebellion’s failure ensured the continuation of Zhang Zuolin’s rule in Manchuria for several more years, but also planted the seeds for future conflicts. Guo’s progressive ideals, though defeated militarily, foreshadowed the political debates that would dominate China in the coming decades. The battle’s aftermath directly contributed to the complex web of alliances and conflicts that characterized Northern China’s politics until the Northern Expedition’s success in 1928.

Today, the Battle of Juliu River stands as a vivid case study in the power dynamics of warlord China, where personal ambition, military strategy, and foreign intervention intersected to shape the nation’s turbulent path toward unification.