The Historical Backdrop of Sino-French Tensions

The late 19th century witnessed escalating tensions between China’s Qing dynasty and France over control of Vietnam, a traditional tributary state of China that had fallen under increasing French colonial influence. This geopolitical struggle culminated in the Sino-French War (1884-1885), a conflict that would test China’s military modernization efforts against European colonial power.

France had been gradually expanding its control over Vietnam since the 1860s, establishing protectorates over different regions. By 1883, through the Treaty of Huế, France declared a protectorate over all of Vietnam, directly challenging China’s historical suzerainty. The Qing court, though weakened by internal rebellions and foreign pressures, could not easily abandon its centuries-old tributary relationship with Vietnam without appearing weak to both domestic audiences and other imperial powers.

The Road to Zhennan Pass

The conflict escalated in June 1884 with the Bắc Lệ Incident, when French forces attacked Qing troops stationed in northern Vietnam. This marked the beginning of open hostilities. French military advantages in technology and organization became immediately apparent as they captured strategic positions including Lạng Sơn and Đồng Đăng.

By February 1885, the situation had grown dire for Qing forces. Poor coordination between regional commanders and technological disadvantages led to a series of defeats. The French captured the strategically crucial town of Lạng Sơn on February 13 with surprising ease, exposing serious weaknesses in Qing leadership. Most alarmingly, French forces pushed northward to Zhennan Pass (today’s Friendship Pass), the gateway between Vietnam and China’s Guangxi province.

On February 23, French forces under General François de Négrier attacked the Qing positions at Wenyuan (modern Đồng Đăng). The Qing commander Yang Yuké died in the fighting, and his troops fled in disarray. The French seized Zhennan Pass, with advance units penetrating 10 kilometers into Chinese territory. In a symbolic act of defiance, the French erected a wooden sign declaring “The gates of Guangxi no longer exist,” only to have Qing forces replace it with their own message: “We will rebuild our gates with French heads!”

The Rise of Feng Zicai and His Cui Army

At this critical juncture, veteran commander Feng Zicai emerged as an unlikely hero. At nearly 70 years old, Feng had come out of retirement to lead a unique force known as the Cui Army (萃军), named after his courtesy name “Cuiting.” This force embodied both the strengths and weaknesses of late Qing military organization.

The Cui Army was rapidly assembled through two methods: converting local militia units and recruiting from Feng’s home region of Qinzhou. Remarkably, Feng raised 18 battalions (about 9,000 men) in just 15 days, demonstrating his local influence and organizational skills. The force maintained strict discipline, with orders prohibiting looting and mandating capital punishment for rape or robbery.

However, the Cui Army’s equipment reflected China’s technological lag. While French troops carried modern Gras rifles (1874 model) with an effective range of 900 meters, Feng’s forces relied on an assortment of outdated weapons including:

– Snyder-Enfield converted muzzleloaders (effective range 550 meters)
– “Lucky” guns (antiquated muzzle-loading muskets)
– Locally made “vanguard pots” – crude grenades made from oil jars
– Eight hundred specially forged broadswords for close combat

Artillery disparities were even more pronounced. French forces deployed state-of-the-art Hotchkiss revolving cannons and mountain guns, while Qing units mostly relied on antiquated “mountain-splitting” cannons dating from the Qianlong era (1735-1796).

The Battle of Zhennan Pass: March 23-24, 1885

Feng Zicai’s defensive preparations proved crucial to the coming battle. Recognizing his troops’ technological disadvantages, he constructed elaborate fortifications at Guanqian’ai, about 4 kilometers behind Zhennan Pass. These included:

– A 1.5 km long, 2-meter high earth wall with firing positions
– A parallel secondary wall 500 meters behind the main line
– Underground tunnels for protection against artillery
– Multiple fortresses on the surrounding heights

The battle commenced on March 23 amid heavy fog. French forces under General Négrier attacked Qing positions on the eastern heights (Small Green Mountain) while attempting to pin down the main defenses. Despite initial French successes in capturing three fortresses, Qing reinforcements stabilized the situation by nightfall.

On March 24, the decisive engagement occurred. Miscommunication led Négrier to believe a flanking maneuver had succeeded, prompting a premature assault on the main Qing positions. As French troops reached the earth walls, the 70-year-old Feng Zicai personally led a countercharge with his two sons, brandishing a spear and shouting: “If we let the French pass through again, how can we face our countrymen? Why live at all?”

This dramatic leadership moment inspired Qing troops to swarm over their fortifications and engage the French in close combat – precisely the type of fighting where their numerical superiority and broadswords could negate French firepower advantages. Simultaneously, Qing flanking movements threatened French withdrawal routes. By day’s end, French forces had suffered their most significant defeat of the war, with 74 killed and 213 wounded.

The Aftermath and Political Consequences

The victory at Zhennan Pass sparked a Qing counteroffensive that retook Lạng Sơn by March 29. These developments caused political shockwaves in France, contributing to the fall of Prime Minister Jules Ferry’s government on March 30. The “Retreat from Lạng Sơn” became a national scandal, with Ferry’s opponents accusing him of mismanaging the colonial war.

However, the Qing decision to “accept victory and cease fighting” (乘胜即收) reflected pragmatic realities:

1. Financial Strain: The Qing treasury was exhausted, having borrowed 17.6 million taels of silver for war expenses
2. Military Limitations: Despite local successes, French reinforcements were arriving while Qing supply lines stretched thin
3. Geopolitical Risks: Potential Japanese or Russian intervention if the war continued

The resulting Treaty of Tientsin (June 9, 1885) contained mixed outcomes:
– China recognized French protection over Vietnam (ending the tributary system)
– No indemnity was paid (unusual in Qing foreign relations)
– France withdrew from Taiwan and the Pescadores
– Commercial concessions were made in southern China

Legacy and Historical Significance

The Battle of Zhennan Pass represents both a tactical success and a strategic paradox. Militarily, it demonstrated that well-led Qing forces could defeat European troops despite technological disadvantages. Politically, it strengthened China’s negotiating position while revealing the limits of Qing power.

Modern assessments vary:
– Traditional views emphasize it as a turning point that forced French compromise
– Revisionist scholars note France had already achieved its primary goal of controlling Vietnam
– The battle highlighted ongoing Qing military reforms while exposing persistent weaknesses

The engagement remains culturally significant as a rare late-Qing military success against Western powers. Feng Zicai’s leadership – particularly his personal bravery during the critical countercharge – became legendary. Today, the site (renamed Friendship Pass) symbolizes both China’s historical struggles and its modern international relations.

Ultimately, the Zhennan Pass campaign encapsulates the complex dynamics of 19th century imperialism, where military victories didn’t always translate into diplomatic success, and where traditional tactics could still achieve localized successes against modern armies. It stands as a poignant chapter in China’s long transition from traditional empire to modern nation-state.