The Rise of Two Expansionist Powers

The mid-17th century witnessed the dramatic expansion of two formidable empires toward the resource-rich Amur River basin. From the west came the Russian bear, fresh from its rapid conquest of Siberia. From the south advanced the rising Qing dynasty, having recently consolidated control over Manchuria before conquering China proper. Their collision in the Amur frontier would shape Northeast Asian geopolitics for centuries.

Russia’s eastward push began with the overthrow of Mongol rule in 1480. Over the next 150 years, the nascent Russian state expanded rapidly under Tsar Ivan IV (“the Terrible”), crushing the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates before crossing the Urals into Siberia. By 1640, Russian frontiersmen had reached the Pacific, establishing fortified outposts like Yakutsk (1632) and Okhotsk (1647). The promise of sable furs and silver drove this expansion, with semi-independent Cossack bands often spearheading colonization.

Simultaneously, the Manchus under Nurhaci unified Manchuria’s Jurchen tribes through his innovative Eight Banners system. After declaring the Later Jin dynasty in 1616, his successors conquered Ming China by 1644, establishing the Qing dynasty. Like the Russians, the Qing sought to control the Amur’s resources and subjugate its indigenous peoples – the Daur, Solon, and Nivkh communities who found themselves caught between these expanding empires.

First Encounters and Early Conflicts

Russian exploration of the Amur began in earnest with Vasily Poyarkov’s 1643-1646 expedition. His brutal tactics – including cannibalism during a harsh winter – poisoned relations with local Daur communities. More consequential was Yerofey Khabarov’s 1649-1653 campaigns, where Cossack forces employed superior firearms to massacre Daur villagers, most notoriously at Guigudar in 1651.

The Qing initially struggled to respond. Distracted by consolidating control over China and facing logistical challenges, their first military engagement in 1652 at Uzala ended disastrously. A 600-strong Qing force with allied indigenous warriors failed to dislodge 206 Cossacks, losing hundreds due to poor coordination and the Russians’ defensive firepower.

However, Qing commanders adapted. At the 1655 Battle of Kumarsk, General Mingandari besieged a Cossack fort with 1,500 troops and artillery. Though failing to take the fortress, the siege demonstrated growing Qing military capabilities. The tide turned decisively in 1658 when General Šarhūda annihilated a Cossack fleet at the Songhua River mouth, killing the notorious leader Onufriy Stepanov.

Strategic Stalemate and Escalation

Following these defeats, Russia temporarily withdrew from the Amur basin. However, by the 1660s, rogue Cossacks like Nikifor Chernigovsky reoccupied Albazin (Yaksa), while Russian settlers established farms along the river. The Qing responded with a “scorched earth” policy, relocating indigenous communities southward to deny resources to the Russians.

Tensions escalated in the 1680s as both empires strengthened their positions. The Qing established the Heilongjiang Military Governorship in 1683, constructing the fortress of Aigun as their regional headquarters. Meanwhile, Russia expanded its Albazin garrison, turning it into a substantial fortress with several hundred troops.

Young Emperor Kangxi, having suppressed the Revolt of the Three Feudaries, turned his attention northward. After failed diplomatic efforts, he authorized military action, declaring: “Since peaceful persuasion has failed, we must employ force.”

The Albazin Campaigns and Diplomatic Resolution

The First Siege of Albazin in 1685 demonstrated the Qing’s military transformation. General Pengcun led 3,000 troops with 150 artillery pieces, bombarding the fortress into submission within days. The Russians surrendered and were allowed to withdraw to Nerchinsk.

However, Russian forces reoccupied Albazin within months, leading to the more protracted Second Siege (1686-1687). This time, the Qing employed a tighter blockade, starving the garrison while avoiding a costly assault. With both sides weary, negotiations began, culminating in the 1689 Treaty of Nerchinsk – the first between China and a European power.

The treaty established the Stanovoy Mountains and Argun River as the border, requiring Russia to abandon Albazin while gaining trading rights. Though imperfect, it brought relative stability to the region for nearly two centuries.

Legacy and Historical Significance

The Amur conflicts marked a pivotal moment in Northeast Asian history. For Russia, they demonstrated the limits of eastward expansion against organized resistance. The Qing, while successful in defending their claims, gained sobering awareness of northern vulnerabilities that would resurface in the 19th century.

The events also revealed the evolving military balance. Early Qing forces struggled against Russian firearms, but by the 1680s had developed formidable siege artillery capabilities. Indigenous peoples like the Daur and Solon, caught between these powers, saw their traditional ways of life permanently altered.

Today, the Amur remains a geopolitical flashpoint, its 17th-century conflicts echoing in modern border disputes. The region’s history stands as testament to the collision of empires and the enduring consequences of their competition for land and resources.