The Dawn of Divine Rule in Ancient Egypt
Before mortal pharaohs walked the earth, the gods themselves ruled Egypt, living among humanity. Egyptian mythology presents conflicting traditions about these primordial rulers. While some local traditions name Ptah as the first king – his name appearing at the head of the Turin King List – the more widespread belief held that Ra (or Ra-Atum), the sun god, served as Egypt’s original divine monarch. This theological diversity reflects the complex merging of regional cults as Egyptian civilization developed.
The Turin King List, one of our most important sources for understanding Egypt’s early chronology, stretches back into this mythical age of divine rule. Compiled during the New Kingdom period (circa 1550-1070 BCE), this papyrus document traces an unbroken line of rulers from the gods through mortal kings. The inclusion of Ptah at its beginning likely represents a Memphite tradition honoring their local creator god, while the predominance of Ra in national mythology demonstrates the solar cult’s ultimate supremacy.
Ra’s Solar Reign: The Cosmic Cycle Embodied
As Egypt’s preeminent solar deity, Ra commanded worship throughout the land, though his primary cult center stood at Heliopolis (“City of the Sun”), now absorbed into modern Cairo. Egyptian art depicts Ra in multiple forms: a falcon-headed man crowned with the sun disk, a serpent-encircled solar orb, and sometimes as a winged sun disk with outstretched feathers. These varied representations reflect the sun god’s cyclical nature through the day.
At dawn, Ra manifested as Khepri, the scarab beetle who rolled the sun above the horizon. At noon, he shone in his full glory as Ra. By evening, he transformed into the weary ram-headed Atum, preparing to descend below the horizon into the underworld (Duat), where he would regenerate for the new day. Another significant manifestation was Ra-Horakhty (Ra-Horus of the Two Horizons), combining solar and falcon deities to represent the sun’s daily journey.
The Secret Name of Power: Isis’s Cunning Gambit
A crucial aspect of Ra’s mythology involves his hidden true name – the source of his power. In Egyptian belief, knowing a being’s true name granted control over them. The goddess Isis, renowned for her magical prowess, sought this knowledge to elevate her unborn son Horus. According to myth, she crafted a venomous serpent from Ra’s saliva mixed with earth, placing it in the aging sun god’s path.
When the serpent bit Ra, the god suffered excruciating pain. Isis offered to heal him, but only if he revealed his true name. In his agony, Ra eventually divulged this secret, transferring power to Isis and, by extension, to Horus. This myth explains the transfer of divine authority between generations of gods while emphasizing the Egyptian concept of heka (magic) as a fundamental cosmic force.
The Eye of Ra: Solar Wrath and Reconciliation
Another significant episode during Ra’s reign involved his wandering Eye (personified as various goddesses including Hathor and Sekhmet). Angered, the Eye departed for Nubia or Libya (accounts vary), leaving Ra vulnerable. Different versions credit various gods (Thoth, Shu, or Onuris) with retrieving the Eye, often through clever persuasion rather than force.
In one elaborate version, Thoth transformed into a dog-faced baboon to approach the Eye (called Tefnut in this telling). Through storytelling and wisdom, he convinced the angry goddess to return. Their journey back to Egypt involved celebratory feasts at Memphis honoring Hathor, demonstrating how Egyptian myths often explained ritual practices and temple traditions.
Rebellions Against the Sun God
Multiple myths describe challenges to Ra’s authority, reflecting Egyptian concerns about cosmic order (ma’at) overcoming chaos (isfet). These rebellions took various forms:
– Human uprisings (as in the “Destruction of Mankind” story)
– Plots by Apophis, the chaos serpent
– Schemes by Seth, the god of disorder
The Esna cosmogony tells of Apophis’s rebellion shortly after his birth from Neith’s saliva. Young Ra, advised by Thoth, fled to safety on the celestial cow Mehet-Weret (“Great Flood”) while Thoth battled the forces of chaos.
The Edfu texts preserve particularly detailed accounts of rebellion. In Ra’s 363rd year, Horus of Behdet (Edfu’s local form of the falcon god) discovered Seth’s followers plotting against the sun god. Transforming into a winged solar disk, Horus created confusion among enemies who then attacked each other. Subsequent battles involved crocodiles and hippopotamuses (Seth’s sacred animals), with Horus ultimately defeating all foes.
The Destruction of Mankind: Beer Saves Humanity
As Ra aged, humanity plotted against him. The sun god responded by sending his Eye as the lioness goddess Sekhmet to punish them. The bloodthirsty goddess nearly exterminated mankind until Ra, regretting his decision, tricked her by flooding the land with beer dyed red to resemble blood. Intoxicated, Sekhmet forgot her murderous mission, saving humanity from extinction. This myth explains:
– The origin of Sekhmet’s fearsome nature
– Egyptian beer’s religious significance
– The annual “Festival of Drunkenness” celebrating humanity’s salvation
The Solar Abdication: Ra’s Ascent to Heaven
Weary from ruling, Ra decided to withdraw from earth. Despite protests from other gods, he ascended to heaven on Nut’s back (the sky goddess transformed into a celestial cow). This departure plunged Egypt into temporary darkness until Ra reorganized the cosmos:
– Creating the Milky Way
– Establishing the afterlife realms (Field of Reeds and Field of Offerings)
– Assigning celestial bodies their places
– Appointing Thoth as moon god and vizier
Ra’s departure marked the transition to Shu’s reign, beginning a succession of divine rulers that would eventually lead to Osiris and the age of mortal pharaohs.
Legacy of Divine Kingship in Egyptian Culture
These myths profoundly influenced Egyptian civilization:
– Kingship ideology: Pharaohs claimed to rule as Horus incarnate, continuing divine governance
– Temple rituals: Many myths reenacted in daily temple ceremonies
– Funerary beliefs: The solar journey through Duat shaped afterlife concepts
– Art and architecture: Solar imagery (winged disks, obelisks) adorned temples nationwide
The stories also demonstrate Egyptian theology’s fluid nature, with gods merging (Ra-Horakhty), splitting (Eye of Ra as separate entity), and evolving over time. This flexibility allowed local cults to maintain distinct traditions while participating in national religion.
From Ptah’s obscure early rule to Ra’s solar monarchy and the eventual transition to Osiris, these divine kingship myths established the template for Egyptian understanding of authority, order, and the universe’s fundamental nature. Their enduring power shaped one of history’s most remarkable civilizations for over three millennia.