The Rise of a Controversial Ruler
Empress Dowager Cixi’s ascent to power represents one of the most extraordinary political trajectories in Chinese history. Born in 1835 as Yehenara Xingzhen to a middle-ranking Manchu official, she entered the Forbidden City in 1851 as a low-ranking concubine of the Xianfeng Emperor. Her fortunes changed dramatically when she bore the emperor’s only surviving son in 1856, securing her position as Consort Yi.
The Second Opium War (1856-1860) and the subsequent flight of the imperial court to Rehe marked a turning point. As the Xianfeng Emperor’s health deteriorated, Cixi demonstrated remarkable political acumen, forming crucial alliances with influential figures like Prince Gong. Following the emperor’s death in 1861, she masterminded the Xinyou Coup, ousting the regents appointed by her late husband and establishing herself as co-regent alongside Empress Dowager Ci’an.
The Long Shadow of Power: 1875-1908
Cixi’s political dominance spanned nearly five decades through the reigns of three emperors: her son Tongzhi, her nephew Guangxu, and the infant Puyi. This period witnessed China’s dramatic encounters with modernization and Western imperialism.
The Tongzhi Restoration (1862-1874) initially showed promise, with limited modernization efforts under Prince Gong’s leadership. However, Cixi’s decision to place her four-year-old nephew on the throne as the Guangxu Emperor after Tongzhi’s premature death in 1875 consolidated her control. The Guangxu era became particularly significant when the young emperor attempted the Hundred Days’ Reform in 1898, only to be thwarted by Cixi’s conservative faction.
The Boxer Uprising and International Backlash
The Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901) marked one of the most controversial chapters in Cixi’s rule. Initially skeptical of the Boxers’ anti-foreigner movement, she eventually supported their cause, leading to the disastrous siege of foreign legations in Beijing. The subsequent Eight-Nation Alliance invasion forced the imperial court to flee to Xi’an, humiliating China with the Boxer Protocol’s harsh terms.
This episode revealed Cixi’s complex relationship with foreign powers. While she had initially resisted Western influence, her later years saw surprising reforms in education, military organization, and government structure – though whether these represented genuine change or political survival tactics remains debated.
Cultural Impact and Court Life
Beyond politics, Cixi profoundly influenced late Qing culture and aesthetics. Her patronage of Peking opera transformed the art form, while her extravagant tastes in jewelry and fashion set court standards. The reconstruction of the Summer Palace (Yiheyuan) using funds originally earmarked for navy modernization became emblematic of her priorities.
Court life under Cixi followed strict rituals but also revealed her personal interests. She maintained elaborate gardens, kept exotic pets, and developed a passion for photography – becoming one of China’s first photographic subjects. Her carefully cultivated image combined Buddhist piety (earning her the nickname “Old Buddha”) with imperial majesty.
The Personality Behind the Power
Contemporary accounts paint a complex portrait. Western observers like Katharine Carl noted her intelligence and charm, while Chinese reformers condemned her authoritarianism. She demonstrated both ruthlessness – as in her treatment of the Guangxu Emperor after the failed reforms – and surprising moments of compassion, such as her donations to disaster relief.
Her management style blended traditional Confucian values with pragmatic realpolitik. She maintained power through a network of loyal officials like Li Hongzhang while balancing conservative and reformist factions. Her ability to navigate the treacherous waters of late Qing politics remains a subject of both criticism and reluctant admiration.
Legacy and Historical Reassessment
Cixi’s death in 1908, one day after arranging the succession of the infant Puyi, marked the end of an era. The Qing dynasty collapsed just three years later, leading many to blame her policies for China’s weakness. Early 20th century historians, both Chinese and Western, largely vilified her as the obstacle to modernization.
Recent scholarship offers more nuanced assessments. While not absolving her of responsibility for China’s decline, modern historians recognize the immense challenges she faced: Western imperialism, domestic rebellions, and a crumbling imperial system. Her late-life reforms, though limited, laid groundwork for subsequent changes.
The debate over Cixi’s legacy continues to reflect broader discussions about China’s encounter with modernity, the role of women in power, and the nature of political leadership in times of crisis. Her reign remains one of history’s most fascinating studies of power, personality, and the weight of historical judgment.