A Controversial Figure in China’s Twilight Dynasty
Empress Dowager Cixi remains one of the most complex and debated figures in Chinese history, a woman who wielded unprecedented power during the final decades of the Qing dynasty. Western observers and Chinese commentators alike have struggled to reconcile her undeniable political acumen with the tumultuous events that unfolded under her rule. As one contemporary observer noted, “The life experiences, governance strategies, and problem-solving methods of Empress Dowager Cixi were completely different from Western thinking.” This fundamental cultural divide has colored historical assessments for over a century.
From Concubine to Regent: The Ascent of a Political Mastermind
Born in 1835 to a middle-ranking Manchu official family, the young Cixi entered the Forbidden City as a low-ranking concubine to the Xianfeng Emperor. Her intelligence and ambition soon became apparent when she bore the emperor’s only surviving son in 1856. Following Xianfeng’s death in 1861, the 26-year-old widow orchestrated a daring coup with Prince Gong, ousting the regents appointed by her late husband and establishing herself as co-regent for her young son, the Tongzhi Emperor.
This bold move marked the beginning of her nearly five-decade dominance over Qing politics. As the Tongzhi Emperor reached maturity, Cixi reluctantly relinquished power, only to resume control after his premature death in 1875. She placed her four-year-old nephew on the throne as the Guangxu Emperor, continuing her regency through his minority and beyond. Even after Guangxu formally assumed power in 1889, Cixi maintained decisive influence from her retirement in the Summer Palace.
Navigating Imperial Decline: Cixi’s Governance Challenges
Cixi’s reign coincided with perhaps the most challenging period in Qing history. The dynasty faced internal rebellions like the Taiping movement (1850-1864) that claimed millions of lives, external threats from Western powers and Japan, and growing calls for modernization from reformist officials. Her approach to these crises revealed both pragmatism and deep conservatism.
During the Tongzhi Restoration (1862-1874), Cixi supported limited modernization efforts while preserving core imperial institutions. She backed regional officials like Zeng Guofan and Li Hongzhang in their campaigns against rebels and in establishing early industrial enterprises. However, her resistance to more fundamental political reforms became clear during the 1898 Hundred Days’ Reform, when she abruptly ended Guangxu’s reform program and placed him under house arrest.
The Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901) represented perhaps her greatest miscalculation. Initially supporting the anti-foreign Boxers, Cixi ultimately had to flee Beijing as foreign troops occupied the capital. The subsequent Boxer Protocol imposed humiliating terms on China, though Cixi managed to retain her position by embracing some reforms during her final years.
Cultural Patronage and Personal Complexities
Beyond politics, Cixi cultivated a rich cultural life that reflected both traditional Manchu courtly tastes and her personal interests. She was an avid patron of Peking opera, often commissioning special performances and even editing scripts. The Empress Dowager also took pleasure in painting, calligraphy, and gardening, particularly at her beloved Summer Palace.
Contemporary accounts describe a woman of striking appearance who maintained her looks into old age through careful grooming and health regimens. Her daily routines were elaborate, from lengthy morning toilette rituals to afternoon naps accompanied by opium smoking – a habit she rationalized as medicinal for those over sixty. These personal habits, combined with the lavish spending on her palaces and tomb, contributed to criticism of her leadership during times of national crisis.
The Diplomat Behind the Curtain: Cixi’s Engagement with the West
Cixi’s relationship with foreign powers was complex and evolving. Initially hostile to Western influence, she gradually recognized the need for engagement. Her famous audience with foreign diplomats’ wives in 1902, following her return from Xi’an after the Boxer Rebellion, demonstrated her political flexibility. American artist Katharine Carl, who painted Cixi’s portrait for the 1904 St. Louis World’s Fair, left detailed accounts of these interactions.
These carefully staged encounters revealed Cixi’s understanding of soft power. She charmed many Western visitors with her gracious manners while maintaining strict protocol that emphasized her imperial status. The transportation of her portrait to America was conducted with ceremonial grandeur equivalent to the Empress Dowager herself traveling abroad – a clear statement about how she viewed her symbolic importance.
The Final Years and Contested Legacy
In her last decade, Cixi implemented some of the very reforms she had previously blocked, including educational modernization and military reorganization. This apparent about-face has led historians to debate whether these were genuine changes of heart or calculated moves to preserve the dynasty – and her own power.
Her death in 1908, one day after the suspicious death of the Guangxu Emperor, marked the end of an era. The child emperor Puyi who succeeded them would be China’s last, as revolution toppled the Qing just three years later.
Modern assessments of Cixi remain deeply divided. Critics point to her resistance to meaningful reform, suppression of political opponents, and the disastrous Boxer policy. Defenders note she governed during an impossible period of imperial decline, maintaining stability longer than might have been expected. As one contemporary observer noted, “To evaluate the history of the Empress Dowager, one should use her own rules to comment, rather than judging her by our standards.”
Reassessing Cixi in Historical Context
Understanding Cixi requires acknowledging the constraints of her time and position. As a woman in a patriarchal system, she had to navigate court politics with particular care. The “Jing Shan Diary,” written by a court official who observed her closely, describes a ruler who could be both charming and terrifying: “When in good spirits, she was very amiable and approachable, but when angry, she could be quite frightening.”
Her leadership style combined traditional Confucian values with pragmatic realpolitik. She quoted classical texts in her edicts while ruthlessly eliminating threats to her power. Like Elizabeth I of England, whom some historians compare her to, Cixi understood the performative aspects of sovereignty while never losing sight of power’s realities.
The Empress Dowager’s tomb, constructed under her close supervision, stands as a final testament to how she wished to be remembered – resting eternally in splendor, her legacy secured. Yet history’s judgment continues to evolve as scholars uncover new sources and perspectives on this most formidable of China’s female rulers.