Origins in Northeast Asia’s Rugged Landscapes
The ancestors of the Manchu people, who would later establish China’s last imperial dynasty, trace their lineage through various tribal names across different historical periods. During pre-Qin times, they were known as Sushen, transforming to Yilou during the Eastern Han dynasty, Wuji in the Northern Wei era, Mohe in the Sui-Tang period, and finally Jurchen (or Nüzhi) during the Song-Ming dynasties.
This resilient people inhabited the vast northeastern territories of what we now call China, a region whose dramatic geography profoundly shaped their development. The triangular-shaped Northeast Asian landmass stretches from the Amur River in the north to the Liaodong Peninsula in the south, bounded by the Great Wall to the west and the Ussuri River to the east. Towering mountain ranges – the Yin Mountains cradling the northwest, the Changbai Mountains shielding the southeast – created natural barriers and defined settlement patterns.
The Mountainous Cradle of Civilization
The region’s complex topography featured three major mountain systems branching from the Yan Mountains. The southeastern branch connected to Beijing’s Western Hills, while the northeastern branch formed the narrow corridor between the Songling and Yiwulu Mountains – a crucial passageway between northeast China and the central plains. The northern branch became the Greater Khingan Mountains, watershed of the Nen and Argun Rivers.
From these peaks flowed life-giving rivers – the Songhua, Yalu, and Tumen all originating from Changbai Mountain’s volcanic caldera lake, Tianchi. The surrounding sixteen peaks, including the 2,691-meter-high Baiyun Peak (Northeast China’s tallest), created a dramatic landscape that nurtured unique cultures. The Sikhote-Alin range along the coast, though later ceded to Russia, had long been home to Sushen-Jurchen peoples, its dense forests providing valuable pine resources.
From Tribal Confederations to Regional Powers
The Manchu ancestors’ historical trajectory reveals remarkable political evolution. As early as legendary Emperor Shun’s reign, Sushen tribes established contact with central plains civilizations, offering tribute including their famous hardwood arrows. This pattern continued through Zhou dynasty records, where Sushen representatives brought “stone arrowheads and hardwood arrows” to the royal court.
During Han dynasty, as Yilou, they faced oppression from the Buyeo kingdom but maintained indirect trade, their sable pelts becoming prized commodities in imperial courts. By Northern Wei times, renamed Wuji, they overthrew Buyeo and dramatically expanded exchanges with central China, once sending a 500-horse tribute mission to Pingcheng (modern Datong).
The Sui-Tang period saw them as Mohe, divided into seven tribes with the Sumo and Heishui (Blackwater) branches becoming most powerful. Tang dynasty records document frequent Mohe delegations to Chang’an, with Emperor Taizong mediating conflicts between Mohe and Khitan peoples. Some Sumo Mohe even migrated to Yingzhou (modern Chaoyang), adopting central plains customs and clothing.
The Golden Age of Bohai Kingdom
A pivotal development occurred when Sumo Mohe leader Qiqizhongxiang established the Dongmu Mountain fortress along the Mudan River. His son Da Zuorong founded the Bohai Kingdom in 698 AD, which Tang emperor Xuanzong later recognized as the “Prefecture of Huhan” and “Prince of Bohai” in 713. This began a 229-year period of flourishing culture and political sophistication.
The Bohai Kingdom, with its capital at Shangjing Longquanfu (near modern Ning’an), maintained close ties with Tang China. Bohai rulers sought Tang approval for succession, sent 132 official missions to Chang’an, and dispatched students to study in the imperial academy. Tang established a special “Bohai Hall” in Qingzhou to manage trade with the kingdom.
Bohai’s governmental structure mirrored Tang systems with three chancelleries, seven courts, and ten guard commands. The kingdom eventually unified various Mohe tribes, establishing five capitals, fifteen prefectures, and sixty-two counties across a vast territory from Changbai Mountains to the Amur River. Archaeological remains at Longquanfu reveal a city layout consciously modeled on Chang’an, complete with outer, inner, and palace walls aligned along a central axis.
The Jurchen Rise Under Liao Domination
After the Khitan Liao dynasty destroyed Bohai in 926 AD, the remaining Heishui Mohe became known as Jurchen (later Nüzhi to avoid naming taboo). The Liao categorized them into “civilized Jurchen” (incorporated into Liao household systems) and “wild Jurchen” (maintaining tribal autonomy).
Among the wild Jurchen, the Wanyan clan emerged as leaders. By the 11th century, under chief Wugunai, they developed iron tools and weapons, forming a powerful tribal confederation recognized by Liao as “Military Governor of Wild Jurchen Tribes.” This period saw the development of private property, class differentiation, and the transition from kinship-based to territorial military organizations (the meng’an-mouke system).
Oppressed by Liao’s excessive demands – particularly for precious gyrfalcons and pearls – the Jurchen united under Wanyan Aguda’s leadership. In 1115, after defeating Liao forces, Aguda declared himself emperor, establishing the Jin dynasty with its capital at Huiningfu (modern Acheng, Heilongjiang). Within a decade, Jin forces conquered Liao and Northern Song territories, dramatically expanding Jurchen influence.
Cultural Transformation and Legacy
The Jin period witnessed significant socioeconomic development in Manchuria, facilitated by mass migrations of Han Chinese artisans and farmers. Agricultural technology advanced with diverse iron tools found at archaeological sites like Balicheng in Zhaodong. The discovery of iron smelting complexes near Acheng indicates substantial metallurgical production.
Cultural artifacts reveal deep Han influence – from silverware bearing Chinese workshop marks to porcelain from Ding kilns and silk textiles traded from Song territories. Even official seals used Chinese-style nine-fold seal script rather than Jurchen writing. This cultural synthesis, combined with the Jurchen’s own innovations, created a unique Northeast Asian civilization that would eventually give rise to the Manchu people and their Qing dynasty.
The Manchu journey from ancient Sushen tribes to imperial rulers exemplifies how Northeast Asia’s geography shaped cultural development while demonstrating the region’s enduring connections to broader Chinese civilization. Their story remains etched in Manchuria’s landscapes and preserved through archaeological treasures that continue to reveal new insights into this transformative chapter of East Asian history.