The Collapse of the Chahar and the Power Vacuum in Inner Asia

The early 17th century witnessed a dramatic shift in the balance of power across the Mongolian steppe when the once-mighty Chahar tribe fell under Qing domination. This pivotal event marked the beginning of a complex geopolitical transformation that would ultimately lead to Qing control over both Inner and Outer Mongolia. However, the Qing conquest paused temporarily as the Manchu rulers turned their attention toward consolidating control over China proper, creating a sixty-year interlude before the final resolution of Mongolian affairs.

The political landscape of Outer Mongolia during this period was divided among three major Khalkha Mongol tribes: the Tüsheet Khanate in the center, the Zasagt Khanate facing the Oirats in the west, and the Setsen Khanate in the east. These Khalkha tribes initially held military superiority over their Oirat rivals, even pushing them back into the Siberian steppe. However, the tide turned dramatically in 1623 when an Oirat coalition decisively defeated the Zasagt Khanate at the Irtysh River, triggering a rapid Oirat expansion across the region.

The Oirat Expansion and Tibetan Connections

The Oirat confederation’s resurgence led to significant territorial changes across Central Asia. The Torghut branch migrated westward to the Volga River basin, while the Khoshut moved south to conquer Tibet. Most significantly for Qing interests, the Dzungar tribe pushed eastward into Outer Mongolia, directly threatening the empire’s northern frontiers.

The collapse of the Chahar under Ligdan Khan created unexpected consequences in Tibet. While the Qing replaced Chahar influence in Hohhot, their westward expansion stalled, leaving a power vacuum stretching from Hohhot to Qinghai. Khalkha leader Tsogt Khun Taiji seized this opportunity to occupy Qinghai. As a fervent follower of the Karma Kagyu school of Tibetan Buddhism, Tsogt persecuted the rival Gelug sect, controlling the crucial passage between Mongolia and Tibet and isolating the Gelugpa from their Mongol patrons.

This religious-political conflict prompted the Gelug hierarchy to seek help from their Oirat allies. In 1637, Khoshut leader Gushi Khan answered the call, defeating Tsogt and establishing control over Qinghai. Using this base, Gushi Khan gradually extended his influence into Tibet, completing his conquest by 1642. That same year, he recognized the Fifth Dalai Lama as Tibet’s spiritual leader while assuming the title of “Dharma King” for himself. This arrangement solidified Gelug dominance in Tibetan Buddhism while marginalizing the Karma Kagyu sect. Gushi Khan’s descendants would continue ruling Tibet for four generations after his death in 1655.

The Rise of Dzungar Power Under Galdan

Following Gushi Khan’s relocation to Qinghai, real power among the Oirats shifted to the Dzungar leader Sengge. However, Sengge’s assassination in 1671 by his half-brothers created a succession crisis that would elevate one of Mongolia’s most formidable figures – Galdan.

Galdan’s life followed an extraordinary trajectory. Recognized as a reincarnated lama at birth, he spent his formative years (from age 13) studying Buddhist philosophy under the Fifth Dalai Lama in Tibet. Returning to Mongolia in 1666 after a decade of religious training, Galdan carried his teacher’s mandate to protect Gelug interests. With Khoshut leader Ochirtu Khan’s support, Galdan avenged Sengge’s death in 1672, executing the conspirators and claiming the Dzungar leadership.

Galdan’s ambitions soon outgrew the Dzungar homeland. Following Mongol custom, he married Sengge’s widow Anu Dara (Ochirtu Khan’s granddaughter) to consolidate his position. By 1676, Galdan had turned against his former ally Ochirtu Khan, defeating the Khoshut at the Ili River and establishing complete control over the Oirat tribes. The Fifth Dalai Lama recognized his achievements by bestowing the prestigious title of “Boshogtu Khan,” cementing Galdan’s position as ruler of a vast Buddhist empire spanning Mongolia and Tibet.

The Dzungar Conquest of Eastern Turkestan

Galdan’s expansion continued into Eastern Turkestan (modern Xinjiang), then ruled by the Black Mountain Khoja faction under Ismail Khan. When the rival White Mountain leader Afaq Khoja fled to Tibet after being exiled, the Fifth Dalai Lama (through his regent) encouraged Galdan to intervene. Seizing this opportunity in 1678, Galdan conquered the region, capturing Ismail Khan while installing Afaq as his puppet ruler in Yarkand.

This conquest demonstrated the growing interconnection between Tibetan religious politics and Mongol military power – a dynamic that would significantly influence Qing frontier policy. The Dzungar Khanate now controlled territory stretching from Eastern Turkestan to the Mongolian plateau, reviving Oirat dominance not seen since the 15th century.

The Khalkha-Oirat War and Qing Intervention

Meanwhile, conflict erupted among the Khalkha tribes, beginning as a dispute between the Zasagt Khan and his relatives but escalating into full-scale war when the Tüsheet Khan intervened. As the Dzungars and Setsen Khan took opposing sides, the conflict expanded into a broader Khalkha-Oirat confrontation.

Emperor Kangxi viewed these developments with concern. Both Khalkha and Oirat maintained friendly relations with the Qing, and neither’s collapse would serve Qing interests. Kangxi therefore collaborated with Gelug leaders to mediate the conflict, building on longstanding Qing-Tibetan relations established when the Fifth Dalai Lama visited Beijing in 1652.

However, the Fifth Dalai Lama’s death in 1682 (kept secret by regent Sangye Gyatso) complicated mediation efforts. Despite these challenges, the 1686 Kulun Belchir assembly brokered a tentative peace. The agreement collapsed when the Tüsheet Khan failed to fully implement its terms, leading to renewed fighting that drew in Galdan after his brother was killed.

Galdan’s Conquest of Outer Mongolia

In 1688, Galdan led 30,000 troops across the Khangai Mountains, crushing Khalkha forces at the Tamir River. The defeated Khalkha leadership, including the Tüsheet Khan and the First Jebtsundamba Khutuktu (the Khalkha’s spiritual leader), fled south to seek Qing protection. With the Khalkha aristocracy in exile, Galdan established complete control over Outer Mongolia – the first Oirat domination of the region in over two centuries.

Kangxi resettled the refugee Khalkha in Inner Mongolia, providing livestock and supplies. However, Galdan’s expanding empire – now stretching from Xinjiang to Outer Mongolia – posed a direct threat to Qing security, particularly if it inspired rebellion among Inner Mongols. These concerns prompted Kangxi to prepare for direct confrontation.

The Battle of Ulan Butung and Its Aftermath

In 1690, Galdan advanced into Inner Mongolia, defeating Qing forces at the Ulhui River and reaching Ulan Butung, just 400 kilometers from Beijing. The ensuing battle saw Galdan’s innovative “camel fort” tactics – where kneeling camels protected riflemen – initially repel Qing attacks. After inconclusive fighting, Galdan withdrew northward, but the incursion had exposed Qing vulnerability.

To reassert authority, Kangxi organized the historic 1691 Dolon Nor assembly, where Khalkha leaders formally submitted to Qing rule. The elaborate ceremonies – featuring imperial audiences, military reviews, and feasts – demonstrated Qing power while integrating the Khalkha into the empire’s frontier administration system.

Kangxi’s Personal Campaign Against Galdan

The final confrontation came when Galdan, weakened by conflict with his nephew Tsewang Rabtan, became isolated in the Khovd region. In 1696, Kangxi launched a three-pronged expedition personally leading the central column across the Gobi Desert – a feat matched in Chinese history only by the Yongle Emperor’s campaigns.

Despite extreme hardships – including food shortages and scorched earth tactics – Qing forces under General Fei Yanggu outmaneuvered Galdan at the Battle of Jao Modo (1696). The decisive victory, won through flanking attacks against Galdan’s fortified position along the Tuul River, broke Dzungar power in Mongolia. Galdan died under mysterious circumstances in 1697, possibly by suicide.

The Qing Consolidation of Mongolia

With Galdan’s death and Tsewang Rabtan’s succession as Dzungar leader, the Khalkha returned to their homeland under Qing administration. The empire’s borders now extended north to the Russian frontier at Kyakhta and west to the Altai Mountains, completing Qing dominance over all Mongolia. Kangxi’s victory secured the northern frontier while establishing the political framework that would govern Mongolia until the early 20th century.

This complex series of events – involving Mongol tribal politics, Tibetan religious authority, and Qing imperial ambition – reshaped Inner Asia’s geopolitical landscape. The Qing victory not only neutralized the Dzungar threat but also integrated Mongolia into the empire’s multi-ethnic structure, demonstrating the sophisticated frontier strategies that underpinned Qing expansion. The legacy of these conflicts would influence regional dynamics long after the Qing dynasty’s fall, particularly in shaping modern Sino-Mongolian relations and Tibetan autonomy questions.