The Rise of a Reactionary Warlord

In the turbulent years following the 1911 Revolution that toppled China’s last imperial dynasty, one figure stood out for his stubborn loyalty to the fallen Qing regime – Zhang Xun. Born in 1854 to a petty merchant family in Fengxin County, Jiangxi province, Zhang’s early life followed an unlikely path from small-time trader to bandit before finding his calling in the military. His career trajectory reveals much about the chaotic transition from imperial to republican China.

Zhang’s military service began in 1884 when he enlisted in Changsha, eventually joining the forces of Guangxi Provincial Commander Su Yuanchun. Over the following decades, he climbed the ranks through a combination of battlefield prowess and political opportunism. His career took a decisive turn in 1895 when he aligned himself with the rising strongman Yuan Shikai, becoming an officer in Yuan’s Newly Established Army. This alliance would shape Zhang’s future, even as his ideological commitments remained firmly rooted in the past.

The Making of a Monarchist Diehard

What set Zhang Xun apart from other warlords of the period was his unshakable devotion to the Qing dynasty. Even after the 1911 Revolution established the Republic of China, Zhang and his troops defiantly retained their queues – the traditional Manchu hairstyle that had become a political symbol. This earned his forces the nickname “Queue Army” and Zhang himself the monikers “Big Queue Zhang” or “Queue Commander.”

Zhang’s reactionary credentials extended beyond hairstyles. He insisted on performing Qing-era kowtows during audiences, championed Confucian orthodoxy as state doctrine, and personally served as director-general of the Confucian Association. After relocating his troops to Yanzhou in 1912, he even deployed soldiers to guard Confucius’s hometown of Qufu, opposing government attempts to secularize temple lands.

The Gathering Storm of Restoration

The political chaos following Yuan Shikai’s death in 1916 created ideal conditions for monarchist elements to regroup. Zhang Xun, now based in Xuzhou, became the focal point for various restorationist factions including:

– Former Qing nobility and officials
– Conservative military officers
– Confucian traditionalists
– Foreign-backed conspirators

Zhang rapidly expanded his Queue Army from 1,000 to over 20,000 troops, transforming Xuzhou into a monarchist stronghold. His restoration plans received support from surprising quarters, including key Beiyang warlords who saw opportunity in the chaos.

International Intrigues and Foreign Backing

The restoration movement attracted significant foreign interest, particularly from Germany and Japan, each with their own geopolitical agendas:

German Support:
– Provided weapons and funding to Zhang’s forces
– Promised diplomatic recognition if restoration succeeded
– Sought to maintain German interests after China broke relations in 1917

Japanese Involvement:
– Offered financial incentives to pro-restoration generals
– Facilitated communications between monarchist factions
– Sent envoys to coordinate with Zhang and other warlords
– Funded anti-republican propaganda efforts

This international dimension added fuel to an already volatile political situation, convincing Zhang that the time was ripe for action.

The Xuzhou Conferences: Blueprint for Restoration

Between 1916-1917, Zhang hosted four critical meetings in Xuzhou that laid the groundwork for his restoration attempt:

1. First Conference (June 1916): Established Zhang as leader of a 13-province military alliance
2. Second Conference (September 1916): Formalized the anti-republican coalition’s structure
3. Third Conference (January 1917): Coordinated opposition to President Li Yuanhong
4. Fourth Conference (May 1917): Finalized plans for the coup after Li dismissed Premier Duan Qirui

These meetings revealed the complex web of alliances and betrayals that characterized early republican politics, with various warlords supporting restoration when convenient but ready to abandon it when circumstances changed.

The Twelve-Day Farce: July 1917 Restoration

On July 1, 1917, Zhang Xun marched into Beijing’s Forbidden City with a retinue of officials in Qing court dress to reinstate the boy emperor Puyi. The elaborate ceremony marked the culmination of years of planning but would prove disastrously short-lived.

Key Events:
– Puyi issued edicts restoring imperial rule
– Zhang was named Prince of Loyalty and Valor
– Qing-era officialdom was hastily reconstituted
– Dragon flags replaced republican banners across Beijing

The capital briefly became a surreal stage for political theater, as opportunists scrambled to purchase Qing-era costumes and fake queues to demonstrate their loyalty to the restored regime.

Nationwide Backlash and Republican Resistance

The restoration provoked immediate and widespread opposition:

Public Reaction:
– Newspapers across China denounced the coup
– Protests erupted in major cities
– Many Beijing residents refused to display imperial flags
– Zhang’s own clansmen publicly repudiated him

Political Opposition:
– Sun Yat-sen called for armed resistance in Shanghai
– Li Yuanhong refused cooperation from his asylum in the Japanese legation
– Duan Qirui mobilized forces against Zhang from Tianjin

The speed and intensity of the backlash demonstrated how deeply republican ideals had taken root, despite China’s political instability.

The Anti-Restoration Campaign

Duan Qirui, recently ousted as premier, seized the opportunity to position himself as defender of the republic. From his base in Tianjin, he:

– Mobilized the 8th Division at Machang
– Secured Japanese logistical support
– Organized a pincer movement on Beijing
– Portrayed himself as republican savior

By July 12, Duan’s forces had defeated Zhang’s Queue Army in a brief but decisive battle that featured the surreal sight of abandoned queues littering the battlefield as soldiers discarded this symbol of loyalty to escape.

Aftermath and Historical Legacy

The collapse of Zhang’s restoration had far-reaching consequences:

Immediate Outcomes:
– Zhang fled to Dutch legation asylum
– Puyi re-abdicated after just twelve days
– Duan Qirui returned to Beijing as republican hero
– Many restorationists escaped punishment

Longer-Term Impacts:
– Exposed the fragility of republican institutions
– Demonstrated public rejection of imperial restoration
– Strengthened Duan’s position at the expense of Li Yuanhong
– Set stage for continued warlord conflicts

Zhang Xun’s failed coup represents both the last gasp of imperial China and a revealing moment in the country’s difficult transition to modernity. The episode demonstrated that while the machinery of republican government remained weak, the idea of republicanism had taken hold in popular consciousness. The spectacle of queues being hastily discarded during the final battle perfectly symbolized how quickly the trappings of imperial loyalty vanished when confronted with political reality.

The restoration farce also highlighted the complex interplay of domestic and international forces in early 20th century China, showing how warlords, foreign powers, and ideological factions all sought to shape the country’s destiny. Ultimately, Zhang Xun’s quixotic attempt to turn back the clock served only to demonstrate how irrevocably China had changed.