The Illusion of Inevitability: Europe’s Initial Acceptance of Nazi Dominance
When Germany launched its blitzkrieg across Europe in September 1939, much of the continent responded not with defiance but with resigned acceptance. Historians often divide World War II into three distinct phases regarding European attitudes toward Nazi rule. The first phase, from September 1939 to June 1941, saw most nations—including the Soviet Union and communist parties worldwide—accommodate themselves to what appeared an unstoppable German expansion. Even powerful entities like Stalin’s USSR became temporary de facto allies of Hitler through the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. This widespread acquiescence stemmed not from German military superiority alone but from a toxic combination of war-weariness after 1918, political opportunism, and miscalculations about Nazi intentions.
The psychological impact of Germany’s early victories cannot be overstated. After witnessing Poland’s rapid defeat in 1939 and France’s shocking collapse in 1940, many Europeans concluded resistance was futile. What few realized was that united opposition during this vulnerable period might have halted the Nazi war machine before it gained unstoppable momentum.
Case Study 1: Austria—The Willing Annexation
The Anschluss of March 1938 presented history’s most striking example of voluntary submission to Nazi rule. Postwar Austria’s successful rebranding as “Hitler’s first victim” remains one of history’s great ironies. The rump Austrian state emerging from Habsburg Empire’s 1918 collapse had always been economically and politically unstable. With significant factions favoring union with Germany since 1919 (forbidden by Allied victors), Nazi ideology found fertile ground.
When German troops crossed the border in 1938, they encountered not resistance but euphoric crowds. Austria’s 30,000-strong army—permitted by Treaty of Saint-Germain—could have mounted symbolic opposition that might have triggered international intervention. Instead, thousands of Austrian officials and police had secretly joined SS ranks beforehand. The absence of any resistance enabled Hitler’s first major violation of post-WWI treaties without consequences.
Austrian complicity ran deep: approximately 350 Austrian generals served in the Wehrmacht, while Alpine regiments formed the backbone of Germany’s mountain troops. Austrian units participated extensively in anti-partisan operations and Holocaust atrocities. Postwar denazification faced peculiar challenges—how to distinguish genuine Nazi converts from opportunists claiming late “resistance” credentials?
Yet Austria also produced genuine resisters. From the first day of annexation, Austrian Jews faced brutal persecution, with public participation in violence exceeding early patterns in Germany itself. The November 1938 Kristallnacht pogrom marked a new phase in Nazi anti-Semitism, with Vienna’s streets becoming particularly violent scenes. Meanwhile, Dachau and Mauthausen concentration camps received thousands of Austrian socialists, Catholics, and monarchists.
Case Study 2: Czechoslovakia—The Betrayed Democracy
Czechoslovakia’s fate reveals how geopolitical betrayal and internal divisions crippled resistance potential. Unlike Austria, Czechoslovakia possessed significant military assets in 1938—including Europe’s premier arms manufacturer Škoda Works and nearly one million trained soldiers behind formidable border fortifications. German generals later admitted they couldn’t have defeated a determined Czech defense, especially with potential French and Soviet support per existing treaties.
The Munich Agreement (September 1938) shattered this potential. Forced by Britain and France to surrender Sudetenland without even being present at negotiations, Czechoslovakia lost its defensive perimeter. Subsequent Polish and Hungarian territorial claims further dismembered the state. When Germany occupied remaining Czech lands in March 1939, creating the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, organized resistance became nearly impossible.
The Protectorate established a unique model of occupation. Unlike Poland, Czech civil administration continued under German supervision. Industries kept producing—now for the Reich—while Czech workers received comparable wages and better rations than Germans. Most significantly, Czechs were exempt from military conscription, ensuring survival rates exceeded neighboring populations. President Emil Hácha’s collaborationist government provided efficient administration while secretly maintaining contacts with London-based exile leader Edvard Beneš.
Czech resistance manifested differently: industrial sabotage, intelligence networks, and the spectacular 1942 assassination of Reinhard Heydrich (architect of the Final Solution). Operation Anthropoid—planned by exiles—provoked horrific Nazi reprisals like the Lidice massacre but proved Czech willingness to fight. However, widespread passive accommodation continued until 1945, making Czechoslovakia’s experience distinct from either Austria’s enthusiasm or Poland’s total resistance.
Case Study 3: Poland—The Unbroken Nation
Poland’s experience contrasted starkly with both Austrian complicity and Czech accommodation. As Hitler’s first military target in September 1939, Poland fought desperately despite being stabbed in the back by Stalin’s September 17 invasion per secret Nazi-Soviet protocols. Even in defeat, Poland never surrendered—establishing a government-in-exile that remained a key Allied partner.
German occupation policy in Poland was exceptionally brutal. Western territories were directly annexed, while the General Government zone became a laboratory for Nazi racial ideology. Unlike Czechs, Poles were considered “subhuman” Slavs marked for eventual elimination. Intellectuals and elites faced systematic extermination (AB-Aktion), while forced labor and random executions terrorized the population. The contrast with “privileged” Czech treatment couldn’t be sharper.
Polish resistance became Europe’s largest underground movement, with the Home Army (AK) fielding over 400,000 members. Unique challenges emerged: besides fighting Germans, Poles clashed with Soviet-backed partisans and Ukrainian nationalists. The 1944 Warsaw Uprising—conducted without Soviet support—ended in catastrophe but demonstrated unparalleled defiance. Meanwhile, Poland’s exile forces contributed significantly to Allied campaigns from the Battle of Britain to Monte Cassino.
The Turning Tide: From Collaboration to Resistance
The June 1941 German invasion of the USSR marked the war’s second phase, transforming communist parties worldwide into ardent resistance advocates. Britain’s Special Operations Executive (SOE) intensified support for continental resistance movements. Yet the decisive shift came in 1943 with Germany’s Stalingrad defeat, proving the Reich could be beaten.
This psychological breakthrough birthed the war’s third phase—mass participation in resistance. As Allied victory seemed probable, collaborators dwindled to “fools and fanatics.” The earlier cases of Austria, Czechoslovakia, and Poland established patterns repeating across Europe: initial shock and accommodation giving way to growing opposition as Nazi brutality eroded any benefits of collaboration.
Legacy: Myths and Realities of Wartime Choices
Postwar narratives often simplified complex wartime behaviors. Austria successfully marketed the “first victim” myth until the 1980s. Czechoslovakia’s Beneš government punished Sudeten Germans collectively for collaboration—a controversial approach given Czech accommodations. Poland’s suffering became central to its national identity, though postwar communist rule suppressed non-communist resistance contributions.
These cases reveal how occupation experiences varied based on Nazi racial hierarchies, prewar political cultures, and geopolitical contexts. They also demonstrate resistance wasn’t binary but a spectrum—from armed struggle to cultural preservation—with each choice carrying mortal risks. Understanding these nuances remains essential when judging this darkest chapter of European history.