The Brewing Storm: Origins of the Conflict

The tensions between the Zhili and Fengtian factions had been simmering for months before erupting into open warfare in April 1922. This confrontation represented more than just a power struggle between regional warlords—it was a battle for control of China’s political future during the fragile early years of the republic.

By late March 1922, military movements by both sides had intensified dramatically. The Zhili faction, led by Wu Peifu, had failed to achieve their political objectives through diplomatic means, leaving military confrontation as their only option. Meanwhile, the Fengtian faction under Zhang Zuolin faced its own challenges. The Southern Military Government’s Cantonese warlord Chen Jiongming had secretly collaborated with Hunan’s military governor Zhao Hengti to block Northern Expedition forces from entering Hunan province. This betrayal culminated in the assassination of Deng Keng, the pro-Sun Yat-sen Chief of Staff of the Guangdong Army, forcing Sun to abandon his northern campaign plans.

Military Preparations and Political Maneuvering

Zhang Zuolin took personal command of Fengtian forces near Tianjin on March 28, having already announced the reorganization of his armies into twelve mixed brigades. He boldly declared maintaining 240,000 troops in Manchuria and the Three Eastern Provinces, with plans to expand to 300,000. The Fengtian army established supply depots at Shanhaiguan and began moving troops into the Guannei region, including the 4th Brigade, 3rd Brigade, 13th Brigade, and the entire 27th Division.

Wu Peifu faced the challenging task of defending against potential attacks from both north and south. He established five new mixed brigades in Luoyang while ordering arms factories in Hanyang, Gongxian, and Dezhou to accelerate weapons production. His defensive strategy focused on creating buffer zones, particularly in Hunan province, where he negotiated with local commanders and incorporated former Guangxi clique forces under Shen Hongying into his defensive line.

The Road to War: Escalating Tensions

The situation reached a boiling point in early April when approximately 500 Zhili-affiliated military officers gathered in Luoyang under the pretext of celebrating Wu Peifu’s birthday, actually convening to finalize war plans against the Fengtian faction. In response, Zhang Zuolin began moving large numbers of troops into Shanhaiguan at an astonishing rate—six trains daily, each carrying enough equipment for an infantry battalion.

Despite the military buildup, political divisions within the Zhili camp became apparent. Cao Kun, the nominal leader of the Zhili clique, hesitated due to political considerations and his familial ties to Zhang Zuolin (they were related by marriage). Cao attempted personal diplomacy, but Zhang, sensing weakness, responded with three uncompromising demands on April 10 that effectively forced Cao to abandon hopes of peaceful resolution.

Battle Lines Drawn: Final Preparations

By mid-April, both sides were engaged in a frantic race to deploy their forces. On April 13, Cao Kun convened a military conference in Baoding that granted Wu Peifu full military authority. The Zhili strategy adopted a defensive posture with three layered defense zones, while the Fengtian army established its headquarters at Shanhaiguan, naming its forces the “Zhenwei Army” (Pacification Army).

As Fengtian forces reached 67 trainloads by April 18, Zhang Zuolin disingenuously claimed his troop movements aimed to “promote unification.” Just one day later, he dropped all pretense, issuing a proclamation that framed his invasion as removing “obstacles to unification.” Wu Peifu countered by demanding Fengtian forces withdraw beyond the Great Wall.

The Outbreak of Hostilities

The first major clashes occurred on April 26, with Zhili forces launching attacks from three directions near Renqiu and Hejian. Initial engagements favored the Fengtian army, particularly in the eastern sector where Li Jinglin’s forces captured strategic positions. However, Wang Chengbin’s timely reinforcements helped stabilize Zhili defenses.

The western front saw particularly fierce fighting around Changxindian, where Fengtian forces had prepared extensive artillery positions and minefields. Despite heavy casualties, Zhili troops under Sun Yue managed a surprise night attack that inflicted significant losses before being pushed back by Fengtian reinforcements.

Diplomatic Interventions and Civilian Suffering

The escalating conflict drew international attention, with foreign diplomatic corps in Beijing issuing warnings based on the Boxer Protocol that prohibited military operations near the capital. Both sides made hollow promises to respect foreign interests while continuing their military preparations.

For ordinary citizens, the war brought immense hardship. Beijing residents faced skyrocketing food prices and chaotic scenes of panic, while Tianjin saw schools close and commerce grind to a halt. In combat zones, civilians endured forced conscription, property seizures, and the destruction of entire villages caught in the crossfire.

Decisive Battles and Fengtian Collapse

The tide turned decisively in early May. On May 3, Wu Peifu’s clever tactics at Changxindian exploited Fengtian ammunition shortages and successfully turned the Fengtian 16th Division (originally a Zhili unit) against its commanders. This betrayal triggered a general Fengtian collapse on the western front.

Simultaneously, the central front saw intense fighting around Gu’an, where Wu Peifu personally led Zhili forces against Zhang Xueliang’s elite units. Despite a desperate Fengtian counterattack using “dare to die” squads, Zhili numerical superiority and better coordination prevailed. By May 4, Fengtian forces were in full retreat from their positions.

Aftermath and Consequences

Zhang Zuolin abandoned his headquarters at Junliangcheng on May 5 as his armies disintegrated. The Beijing government, now firmly under Zhili influence, stripped Zhang of all official positions on May 10. However, Zhang retained control of Manchuria by declaring independence and reorganizing his remaining forces.

The final act came on June 17 aboard the British warship HMS Curlew, where representatives from both sides signed an armistice that established the Great Wall as the demarcation line. Fengtian forces withdrew beyond Shanhaiguan, while Zhili troops consolidated control over northern China proper.

Why the Zhili Prevailed

Several factors contributed to the Zhili victory despite Fengtian numerical and material advantages:

1. Superior strategy: Wu Peifu’s three-front deployment proved more flexible than Zhang’s two-army plan
2. Psychological warfare: Zhili forces effectively used propaganda to demoralize Fengtian troops
3. Logistical mastery: Wu’s tactics deliberately exhausted Fengtian ammunition supplies
4. Political positioning: The Zhili faction successfully framed the conflict as defending republican values against warlordism

The First Zhili-Fengtian War marked a watershed in China’s warlord era, establishing the Zhili clique as dominant power brokers in Beijing while setting the stage for future conflicts. Its legacy would shape Chinese politics until the Northern Expedition unified the country several years later.