A Nation Divided: China’s Political Landscape in 1924

When Duan Qirui assumed office as China’s Provisional Chief Executive on November 24, 1924, he inherited a fractured nation. The collapse of the Beiyang government had left power dispersed among regional warlords, while foreign powers maintained economic strangleholds through unequal treaties. Duan’s United Front government represented less a unified administration than a temporary alliance between Feng Yuxiang’s National Army and Zhang Zuolin’s Fengtian clique. This precarious balance reflected China’s broader crisis – a republic in name but a battleground for competing militarists and imperialist interests.

The political vacuum followed the dramatic Beijing Coup of October 1924, when Christian warlord Feng Yuxiang betrayed Wu Peifu during the Second Zhili-Fengtian War. This betrayal not only shifted military fortunes but destroyed what remained of central authority. Duan, a former Premier with Japanese backing, emerged as a compromise figurehead acceptable to both Feng and Zhang precisely because he lacked independent military power.

The Faustian Bargain: Duan’s Alliance with Warlords and Foreign Powers

Recognizing his weak position, Duan pursued a dual strategy of appeasement. Domestically, he convened the Postwar Affairs Conference (善后会议) in February 1925 – effectively a warlord summit for dividing spoils rather than establishing constitutional governance. This blatant disregard for Sun Yat-sen’s proposed National Assembly exposed Duan’s priorities: political survival over republican ideals.

Internationally, Duan’s infamous “Respect International Treaties” (外崇国信) declaration on November 24, 1924, shocked reformists. By vowing to uphold all unequal treaties, he directly contradicted the growing nationalist movement demanding treaty revision. Japanese Minister Yoshizawa Kenkichi orchestrated swift diplomatic recognition, with seven Western powers following suit by December 9. Their relief was palpable – here was a Chinese leader willing to protect foreign privileges against rising anti-imperialist sentiment.

The Golden Franc Scandal: Economic Subjugation in Broad Daylight

The Franco-Chinese Gold Franc Controversy (金佛郎案) exemplified Duan’s subservience. France demanded China repay Boxer Indemnity balances in gold-backed francs rather than depreciated paper francs – a switch that would increase China’s debt by 80 million silver dollars. When negotiations stalled in 1922, France froze China’s customs surplus.

Duan’s desperate government, starved of revenue as warlords withheld provincial taxes, capitulated in April 1925. The agreement required China to:
– Accept gold franc conversions backdated to 1922
– Use portions of repaid indemnities to revive the defunct Sino-French Industrial Bank
– Potentially set precedent for Italy, Spain and Belgium to make similar demands

Public outrage erupted nationwide. Beijing students ransacked the home of Justice Minister Zhang Shizhao, while prosecutor Weng Jingtang filed 8,000-word indictments against three cabinet members. Yet no officials faced trial – a stark demonstration of foreign-influenced judicial impotence.

The Tariff Conference Charade: Autonomy Promised, Sovereignty Denied

The 1925-26 Beijing Tariff Conference revealed the limits of Duan’s concessions. Though convened under Washington Treaty terms, Western powers only nominally recognized China’s tariff autonomy effective 1929 – with crippling conditions:
1. Complete elimination of likin (internal transit taxes) first
2. Interim surtaxes capped at 2.5% for regular goods
3. Luxury items taxed up to 5%

Japanese delegate Saburi Sadao led resistance against higher rates, while Britain’s James Macleay insisted revenues fund debt repayment first. The May 30th Movement’s anti-imperialist protests during negotiations forced rhetorical concessions but no substantive change. When Duan’s government collapsed in April 1926, the conference dissolved without implementing reforms.

Warlord Chessboard: The Fengtian Clique’s Southern Expansion

Behind Duan’s diplomatic maneuvers, Zhang Zuolin’s Fengtian faction aggressively expanded:
– November 1924: Li Jinglin’s forces seized Tianjin, ousting Wang Chengbin
– December 1924: Zhang abolished the Northeast Frontier Defense title while retaining control
– January 1925: Fengtian troops pushed down the Tianjin-Pukou Railway toward Shanghai

This southward thrust alarmed both Feng Yuxiang and Duan. By appointing Anhui’s Wang Yitang and reinstating Lu Yongxiang as Jiangsu-Anhui Pacification Commissioner, Duan attempted to balance factions. Yet these moves merely delayed inevitable conflict between Nationalist, Fengtian, and resurgent Zhili forces.

Legacy of Compromise: How Duan’s Rule Shaped China’s Revolution

Duan’s 17-month administration proved pivotal in three ways:
1. It exposed the bankruptcy of warlord governance, discrediting federalist solutions
2. The Golden Franc and tariff debacles fueled anti-imperialist sentiment, swelling Communist and Nationalist ranks
3. Fengtian expansion created the warlord conflicts that would enable the Northern Expedition

When Duan finally fled Beijing in April 1926, he left behind not just a failed government but a nation radicalized against both warlordism and foreign privilege. His temporary solutions had only made China’s revolutionary reckoning inevitable. The very forces he courted – militarists and imperialists – would soon face their own existential crises as China’s long night of fragmentation gave way to new struggles for unification.