The Geographic Divide Between Two Worlds

The eastern edge of the Mongolian Plateau drops sharply into the Manchurian Plain, with the Great Daxing’an Mountains forming the dramatic boundary between these contrasting landscapes. This mountain range presents a fascinating geographic paradox – viewed from the western Mongolian Plateau, it appears as mere rolling hills, while from the eastern Manchurian Plain, it rises as an imposing wall of towering peaks. This visual dichotomy reflects the profound environmental differences between the two regions.

West of the mountains lies the arid Mongolian Plateau, while the eastern slopes benefit from abundant precipitation, developed river systems, and numerous valleys suitable for agriculture. This unique position made the Daxing’an region a transitional zone where nomadic and agricultural civilizations interacted for centuries. Historical powers like the Xianbei people who founded the Northern Wei Dynasty and the Khitans who established the Liao Dynasty all settled in this area. During the Yuan Dynasty, Mongols frequented the region, which today falls under the jurisdiction of China’s Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region.

The Manchurian Plain and Its Unique Culture

Beyond the Daxing’an Mountains lies the true Manchurian Plain, stretching from the Liao and Songhua Rivers in the west to the Changbai Mountains in the east. This sparse landscape of scattered shrubs and hills supported rain-fed agriculture of wheat, millet, and other crops. However, the poor soil quality meant farming alone couldn’t sustain local populations, leading to a mixed economy that included hunting and pig farming.

This distinctive pig-rearing tradition led Turkic peoples to call the local inhabitants “Tungus,” derived from their word for pig (“tonguzu”). The Tungus people’s hunting activities focused less on subsistence and more on gathering valuable trade commodities like furs from sable, fox, squirrel, and otter that inhabited the Siberian taiga forests along the Songhua and Amur Rivers. The Changbai Mountains at the Korea-Manchuria border produced prized medicinal ginseng and gourmet ingredients like mushrooms and pine nuts, while freshwater pearls from across Manchuria became luxury trade items transported to markets in Liaoyang and Shenyang.

The Jurchen People and Their Social Structure

Since the 10th century, the Jurchen people (a Tungusic group) inhabited the areas east of the Liao and Songhua Rivers. Their society featured a unique two-class system where masters engaged in hunting and trade while slaves handled farming and pig rearing. Despite this division, both classes lived together, shared meals, and equally distributed resources, creating strong familial bonds that often lasted generations. Masters and slaves formed interdependent economic units where neither could survive without the other.

From Tribal Groups to Ming Military Districts

After conquering northern China and establishing the Jin Dynasty in the 12th century, the Jurchens were eventually defeated by the Mongols. The remaining Jurchen populations in Manchuria came under the loose administration of the Yuan Dynasty’s Liaoyang Province. When the Ming Dynasty rose to power, the Hongwu Emperor occupied Manchuria primarily for military strategy, but the Yongle Emperor developed closer ties through marriage to a Jurchen chieftain’s daughter and by incorporating Jurchen and Mongol soldiers into his forces during the Jingnan Campaign.

In 1403, the Yongle Emperor reorganized these troops into the Ming military system, establishing guard posts (wei-suo) based on tribal units. The Jianzhou Guard was created near Jilin under chief Aha Chu, while other guards were established further north. As Ming influence expanded along the Amur River, the Nurgan Regional Military Commission was created in 1411 to administer these distant outposts. The Ming even sent expeditions to the Amur estuary, reviving the Yuan Dynasty’s former military presence there.

The Rise of Nurhaci and the Jianzhou Confederation

After the Ming abandoned its northern outposts in the mid-15th century due to pressure from the Oirat Mongols, the guard post system evolved into a framework for border trade. Three major trading gates developed – Zhenbeiguan, Guangshunguan, and Fushunguan – near which powerful Jurchen tribal states emerged. Among these, the Jianzhou Left Guard produced a remarkable leader – Nurhaci.

Under the protection of Ming general Li Chengliang, Nurhaci expanded his power base at Hetu Ala, unifying the three Jianzhou guards by 1588. Korean envoy Sin Chung-il’s 1593 account provides vivid details about Nurhaci’s growing power center, describing the triple-walled city layout and the balanced power dynamic between Nurhaci and his brother Surhaci.

The Establishment of the Later Jin Dynasty

Nurhaci benefited from his alliance with Li Chengliang, who monopolized the lucrative fur and ginseng trade with Ming China. However, when Li fell from power in 1608, Nurhaci continued his unification campaigns, conquering the Hada and Hoifa tribes before proclaiming the Later Jin Dynasty in 1616 – a revival of the historic Jin Empire.

Nurhaci organized his state into the innovative Eight Banners system (gusa), military-administrative units distinguished by colored flags. Each banner contained subordinate units (jalan and niru) capable of mobilizing 300 men for military or labor service. This system became the foundation of Qing social organization, eventually incorporating Han Chinese and Mongols alongside the Jurchen core.

The Battle of Sarhu and Its Consequences

The breakdown of trade relations with Ming China led Nurhaci to military confrontation. In 1619, the Ming launched a massive four-pronged invasion, but Nurhaci’s forces achieved a stunning victory at Sarhu by defeating the Ming armies piecemeal. This decisive battle marked a turning point, enabling the Later Jin to conquer Liaodong by 1621.

Despite territorial gains, the Later Jin still struggled economically without formal trade relations with the Ming. The controversial Ming general Mao Wenlong established a rogue trading base on Ka Island (near Korea), creating an illicit but vital commercial link between the two powers until his execution in 1629.

The Expansion Under Hong Taiji

After Nurhaci’s death in 1626, his son Hong Taiji emerged as the new khan through a selection process among the leading beile (princes). Hong Taiji pursued an aggressive expansion policy, invading Korea in 1627 to force trade concessions and leading campaigns into Mongolia and against the Ming. His 1634 campaign against the Chahar Mongols proved particularly significant when he acquired the Yuan imperial seal – a powerful symbol of legitimacy.

The Founding of the Qing Dynasty

In 1636, with the support of Jurchen, Mongol, and Han Chinese leaders, Hong Taiji proclaimed the Qing Dynasty, changing the ethnic name from Jurchen to “Manchu.” This new empire represented a multicultural union, reflected in its trilingual administration (Manchu, Mongol, and Chinese). When Korea refused to recognize the new dynasty, Hong Taiji launched another invasion in 1636-37, forcing the Joseon king to surrender and switch allegiance from Ming to Qing.

Despite these achievements, Hong Taiji’s persistent efforts to establish formal trade relations with the Ming remained unfulfilled at his sudden death in 1643. His legacy, however, laid the foundation for the Qing Dynasty’s eventual conquest of all China, bridging the worlds of nomads and farmers that had interacted along the Great Daxing’an Mountains for centuries.