The Tumultuous Dawn of the Ming Dynasty

The early Ming Dynasty under Emperor Hongwu (Zhu Yuanzhang) presents one of history’s most fascinating paradoxes – a peasant rebel turned emperor who established one of China’s most enduring imperial systems while simultaneously unleashing unprecedented political terror. Having risen from abject poverty to supreme power, Zhu Yuanzhang carried both the trauma of his youth and the ruthless pragmatism of a self-made ruler into his governance.

This complex backdrop set the stage for what would become known as the Four Great Cases of the Hongwu reign, two of which – the Empty Seal Case and Guo Huan Case – reveal the emperor’s growing distrust of his bureaucracy and the extreme measures he employed to consolidate power. These purges would reshape Ming governance, leaving lasting impacts on Chinese political culture.

The Empty Seal Case: Bureaucratic Efficiency Meets Imperial Wrath

In the ninth year of Hongwu (1376), a routine administrative practice exploded into one of Ming history’s most notorious political persecutions. The case originated from a practical solution to an impractical imperial decree – provincial officials were required to submit annual financial reports to the Ministry of Revenue, with every figure matching central records exactly. Any discrepancy, no matter how minor, necessitated returning to the provincial capital to redo the documents with official seals.

Given the vast distances and primitive transportation (a journey from Guangxi to Nanjing could take two months each way), officials developed an ingenious workaround: they carried pre-stamped blank documents to make corrections in the capital. This “empty seal” practice became an open secret throughout the bureaucracy – except to the emperor himself.

When Zhu Yuanzhang discovered this circumvention of his authority in 1376 (though some records suggest 1382), his reaction was characteristically severe. The emperor interpreted the practice not as administrative pragmatism but as a fundamental challenge to his authority – if officials could use seals without permission for this, what else might they authorize?

A Lone Voice of Reason: The Courage of Zheng Shili

Amidst the terrified silence of court officials, an extraordinary commoner named Zheng Shili dared to explain the truth to the emperor. In a remarkable memorial, this low-ranking scholar carefully outlined how the “empty seals” used stitching marks rather than full impressions, making them unsuitable for fraudulent use. He even tactfully suggested the emperor’s concern stemmed from wanting to protect the people from corrupt officials.

Zheng’s bravery earned him not gratitude but hard labor. His fate demonstrated a crucial lesson about Hongwu’s reign – the emperor likely understood the practical reasons behind the empty seals, but the challenge to his absolute authority was unforgivable. As a self-made ruler who had clawed his way to power, Zhu Yuanzhang tolerated no perceived disrespect, no matter how trivial.

The Bloody Aftermath: Decimating the Bureaucracy

The punishment reflected Zhu Yuanzhang’s signature ruthlessness. Across thirteen provinces, 140 prefectures, and over 1,000 counties:
– All chief seal-holding officials were executed
– Deputies received 100 lashes and military exile
– Even provincial censors faced punishment for “negligent supervision”

Notable among the victims was Fang Kecin, father of the famous loyalist Fang Xiaoru, known for his personal austerity yet executed simply for being a seal-holding official. Modern estimates suggest thousands perished, though claims of ten thousand deaths appear exaggerated.

The Empty Seal Case reveals less about corruption than about power dynamics in early Ming China. It established a pattern – Zhu Yuanzhang would use legal cases to systematically eliminate perceived threats, whether real or imagined.

The Guo Huan Case: Corruption and Calculated Exaggeration

If the Empty Seal Case demonstrated Zhu Yuanzhang’s paranoia, the Guo Huan Case of 1385 showcased his strategic brutality. When censors accused Vice Minister of Revenue Guo Huan of massive embezzlement, the emperor’s investigation uncovered what appeared to be the largest corruption scandal in imperial history.

The charges against Guo were staggering:
– Diverting taxes from Taiping and Zhenjiang prefectures
– Embezzling 2.5 million piculs of Zhexi’s autumn grain tax (over half the total)
– Inventing numerous illegal surcharges
– Total alleged embezzlement: 24 million piculs – equivalent to the empire’s entire annual revenue

Suspicious Numbers and Political Purges

The case’s implausible scale raises obvious questions. How could a mid-ranking official embezzle sums equal to national revenue under the watch of an emperor notorious for micromanagement? Why would Guo involve officials from all Six Ministries in his scheme?

The investigation’s outcome suggests political motives:
– Nearly all vice ministers from Six Ministries were executed
– Provincial and county-level officials implicated
– Estimated total executions: 30,000
– Middle-class families reportedly bankrupted nationwide

The purge left ministries decimated – some departments retained only their ministers and two vice ministers. The judicial irony? The case’s chief judge, Wu Yong, eventually became its final victim.

Living Under Terror: The Psychology of a Purge

The cumulative effect of these cases created an atmosphere of paralyzing fear among officials. Contemporary accounts describe macabre morning rituals – officials would bid farewell to families as if going to their deaths, with celebrations if they returned alive. Many resorted to feigning madness to escape service, with some performances including eating fake dog feces to prove insanity.

The case of censor Yuan Kai exemplifies the psychological toll. After being caught between contradicting orders from Zhu Yuanzhang and Crown Prince Zhu Biao, Yuan pretended madness so convincingly (including the dog feces performance) that even the suspicious emperor relented.

Understanding Zhu Yuanzhang’s Motivations

Beneath the surface brutality lay complex motivations:
1. Personal Trauma: His childhood suffering under corrupt Yuan officials bred lifelong distrust of bureaucrats
2. Power Consolidation: Eliminating potential threats to his absolute rule
3. Administrative Control: Ensuring strict compliance with his vision for governance
4. Economic Factors: His unrealistic salary system for officials inadvertently encouraged corruption

While Zhu Yuanzhang’s anti-corruption zeal was genuine, his methods proved counterproductive. By relying solely on terror rather than systemic reform, he created a bureaucracy too terrified to function effectively. The rampant corruption in later Ming dynasties ironically proved his approach’s ultimate failure.

The Final Reckoning: Chancellor Li Shanchang’s Fall

The purge’s last major victim was Li Shanchang, Zhu Yuanzhang’s longtime chancellor. Despite surviving earlier purges, Li’s fate was sealed when:
– He requested soldiers from general Tang He to build his house
– Tang reported this seemingly innocuous request to the emperor
– Investigations revealed connections to earlier conspiracies
– Even astronomical officials claimed celestial signs demanded “removing senior ministers”

In 1390, the 77-year-old statesman was executed along with his extended family, marking the tragic end of a 36-year partnership that had built the Ming Dynasty.

Legacy of the Hongwu Purges

The Empty Seal and Guo Huan cases transformed Ming governance:
1. Centralized Power: Established absolute imperial authority over bureaucracy
2. Institutional Paralysis: Created risk-averse administration
3. Precedent for Political Violence: Normalized mass purges as governance tools
4. Economic Consequences: Disrupted regional economies and taxation systems

Modern historians debate whether Zhu Yuanzhang’s actions reflected calculated statecraft or growing paranoia. What remains undeniable is their lasting impact – these cases shaped Chinese administrative culture for centuries, demonstrating both the strengths and perils of centralized power. The tragic heroism of figures like Zheng Shili endures as a reminder of individual courage against overwhelming tyranny.