A Nation in Crisis: The Road to the Second Opium War
The mid-19th century marked a period of profound upheaval for China’s Qing Dynasty. As Western powers aggressively expanded their influence in East Asia, tensions culminated in what became known as the Second Opium War (1856-1860). The conflict originated from longstanding trade disputes, diplomatic misunderstandings, and Britain’s desire to expand its commercial privileges following the First Opium War (1839-1842).
By 1860, Anglo-French forces had advanced toward Beijing after capturing key coastal positions. The Qing military, despite occasional victories like the successful defense of the Dagu Forts in 1859, ultimately proved unable to withstand modern European firepower. As foreign troops approached the capital in August 1860, Emperor Xianfeng faced a critical decision—whether to remain in Beijing or flee to the safety of Rehe (modern Chengde) in Manchuria.
The Diary of a Grieving Scholar: A Window Into Chaos
A rare firsthand account of this turbulent period comes from the private diary of a Hanlin Academy scholar, later published as Records of Sorrow. While primarily documenting the author’s filial devotion to his dying mother, the text inadvertently reveals crucial details about court politics and Empress Dowager Cixi’s (then known as Consort Yi) emerging influence.
The diary’s poignant narrative begins in July 1860, as rumors spread of foreign forces reaching the Dagu estuary. The scholar describes a capital gripped by panic, with officials submitting unanswered memorials and commoners beginning to flee. Notably, he records Consort Yi’s early political stance—she vehemently opposed the emperor’s proposed retreat, arguing that his presence alone would deter foreign aggression.
The Fall of Beijing: Leadership in Question
As the military situation deteriorated, the diary captures pivotal moments:
– August 1860: Mongol cavalry units, unprepared for modern warfare, collapse during the Battle of Zhangjiawan, allowing Anglo-French forces to advance toward Beijing.
– Court Divisions: While senior ministers urged evacuation, Consort Yi organized memorials advocating the emperor’s stay. She issued edicts rewarding resistance fighters, maintaining public morale even as officials secretly sent families away.
– The Emperor’s Flight: On August 22, Xianfeng ignored Consort Yi’s final pleas and fled northward with his court—an act the diary compares to the disgraceful Eastern Zhou Dynasty’s flight in 771 BCE.
Simultaneously, the scholar’s personal tragedy unfolds. His mother’s terminal illness forces him to navigate funeral preparations amid the chaos, including procuring a coffin worth 1,000 taels of silver as the city descends into anarchy.
The Sack of Yuanmingyuan and Its Aftermath
The diary’s most harrowing passages describe the October 1860 destruction of the Old Summer Palace (Yuanmingyuan):
– Anglo-French troops looted and burned the imperial complex over three days, justifying it as retaliation for the mistreatment of prisoners (including diplomat Harry Parkes).
– The scholar notes the eerie normalcy in commercial districts even as palaces burned, highlighting Beijing’s fractured reality.
– Consort Yi reportedly advocated executing foreign prisoners, reflecting her hardline stance before the eventual surrender.
The Rise of Cixi: Political Maneuvering in Exile
With Xianfeng’s court in Rehe, the diary reveals:
– Power Vacuum: The emperor’s illness allowed Consort Yi to review memorials, marking her formal entry into governance.
– Factional Struggles: Princes Sushun and Zaiyuan sought to marginalize her, fearing her future regency.
– The Rehe Decree: Likely drafted under Consort Yi’s influence, this September 1860 proclamation defended Qing resistance while blaming local officials for provoking conflict. It offered bounties for enemy casualties but left room for negotiated peace—a strategic ambiguity.
Legacy and Historical Reassessment
The diary’s significance lies in its unvarnished portrayal of:
1. Cixi’s Early Political Identity: Far from the later caricature of a reactionary, she emerges as a pragmatic leader advocating symbolic resistance while others fled.
2. Collateral Damage: The scholar’s parallel narratives—imperial collapse and personal loss—humanize the war’s toll on ordinary elites.
3. Diplomatic Lessons: The Qing’s oscillation between defiance and appeasement foreshadowed later 19th-century struggles with foreign powers.
Modern historians increasingly recognize this period as foundational to Cixi’s 47-year regency. Her experiences in 1860—witnessing Western firepower, court cowardice, and the limits of traditional diplomacy—shaped her subsequent blend of selective modernization and cultural conservatism.
The Records of Sorrow, though written through tears, remains an indispensable window into China’s traumatic encounter with modern imperialism and the making of its most controversial female ruler. Its pages remind us that behind grand narratives of war and treaties lie countless untold stories of resilience, grief, and unexpected leadership emerging from national humiliation.