The Dawn of Reform in Late Qing China
The summer of 1898 marked a pivotal moment in China’s long imperial history. Emperor Guangxu, under the influence of reformist scholar Kang Youwei, launched an unprecedented series of modernization decrees known as the Hundred Days’ Reform. This bold initiative sought to transform China’s antiquated institutions amid growing foreign threats and internal stagnation.
The reforms targeted China’s ossified civil examination system, which had remained largely unchanged since the Song Dynasty (960-1279 AD). For centuries, this Confucian-based system had selected officials based on their mastery of classical texts rather than practical knowledge. Emperor Guangxu’s July 1898 edict revolutionized this tradition by requiring candidates to study Western political systems, international relations, and modern sciences alongside traditional subjects.
The Conservative Backlash and Political Infighting
The reform agenda immediately faced fierce opposition from conservative mandarins. A dramatic confrontation erupted when progressive censors Song Bolu and Yang Shenxiu memorialized the throne, accusing Xu Yingkui, the Minister of Rites and senior official at the Zongli Yamen (foreign office), of obstructing reforms. Their scathing indictment claimed Xu deliberately sabotaged new policy examinations and openly disparaged Western learning.
Xu’s defiant rebuttal revealed deeper political fault lines. The Guangdong native counterattacked by portraying Kang Youwei as an unscrupulous opportunist who manipulated the young emperor. Xu’s memorial contained startling personal accusations – alleging Kang’s questionable moral character, his creation of unauthorized political associations, and his dangerous radicalism. This exchange exposed the growing rift between reformists and the conservative establishment led by Empress Dowager Cixi.
Institutional Overhaul and Cultural Transformation
Undeterred by opposition, Guangxu pressed forward with sweeping institutional changes:
– The complete reorganization of Beijing’s Manchu banner forces
– Establishment of the Imperial University of Peking (precursor to Peking University)
– Nationwide creation of modern primary and secondary schools
– New government bureaus for railways, mining, and naval affairs
– Official newspaper networks to spread reformist ideas
Perhaps most revolutionary was the August 1898 decree abolishing numerous sinecure positions that had supported idle Manchu nobility for generations. This direct challenge to privileged elites sent shockwaves through the Qing establishment.
The Fatal Miscalculation and Cixi’s Coup
As tensions escalated, Kang Youwei committed a fatal strategic error. In secret audiences, he urged Guangxu to stage a preemptive strike against Cixi – suggesting her imprisonment on an island in the Western Gardens. This conversation, overheard by palace eunuchs loyal to Cixi, sealed the reformers’ fate.
The Empress Dowager, having monitored events from her Summer Palace retreat, moved decisively. On September 21, 1898, she placed Guangxu under house arrest and resumed regency. Kang Youwei and his protege Liang Qichao fled into exile, while six prominent reformers were executed at Caishikou execution grounds.
Legacy of the Aborted Reformation
Though lasting barely three months, the Hundred Days’ Reform left an enduring legacy:
1. It demonstrated the Qing court’s inability to enact meaningful self-reform, convincing many intellectuals that revolution rather than renovation was necessary
2. The Imperial University of Peking survived the reactionary backlash, becoming China’s first modern national university
3. Reformist ideas continued circulating through underground networks, influencing the 1911 Revolution
4. The dramatic failure underscored China’s deepening crisis of governance
Modern historians view the 1898 reform attempt as China’s last major opportunity for gradual modernization under imperial rule. Its violent suppression accelerated the Qing dynasty’s collapse while setting the stage for the revolutionary movements that would reshape China in the 20th century. The ideological battle between Kang Youwei’s constitutional monarchism and Xu Yingkui’s conservative orthodoxy continues to echo in contemporary debates about China’s path to modernity.