The Hundred Days’ Reform: China’s Aborted Path to Modernization

The Intellectual Awakening Before Reform

The late 19th century found China humiliated by military defeats, particularly in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895). This sparked intense soul-searching among scholar-officials in Beijing’s Hanlin Academy. Convinced traditional Confucian governance could no longer safeguard China’s sovereignty, progressive minds like Kang Youwei—a brilliant Guangdong scholar and jinshi degree holder—began challenging orthodox interpretations of Chinese classics.

Kang’s radical approach rejected Zhu Xi’s Neo-Confucian exegesis, instead synthesizing Western philosophical concepts with classical texts. His 1895 “Ten Thousand Word Memorial,” co-signed by 1,300 provincial graduates (juren), urged Emperor Guangxu to enact sweeping reforms modeled on Japan’s Meiji Restoration. This document became the intellectual foundation for what would later be called the Hundred Days’ Reform.

The Rise of Reform Societies

Inspired by Kang’s ideas, young intellectuals established reformist organizations across major cities. The most influential was the Qiang Xue Hui (Society for the Study of National Strengthening) in Beijing, comprising:

– Core Members: Hanlin scholars, censors, and mid-level bureaucrats
– Key Publications: Wanguo Gongbao (The Globe Magazine), which strategically borrowed the name of a missionary journal to avoid censorship
– Notable Figures:
– Liang Qichao (Kang’s protegé, later secretary to missionary Timothy Richard)
– Tan Sitong (son of Hubei governor, executed in 1898)
– Wen Tingshi (imperial tutor)

The society’s activities—including public lectures and policy debates—marked China’s first organized civil intellectual movement. However, conservative opposition led by Li Hongzhang’s son-in-law forced its temporary closure in January 1896, only reopening after securing annual stipends from the Zongli Yamen (foreign affairs office).

Western Influences and Policy Proposals

Missionaries played an unexpected role in shaping reformist agendas. British missionary Timothy Richard submitted a comprehensive modernization plan to Grand Councillor Weng Tonghe, recommending:

1. Hiring foreign advisors for the emperor
2. Establishing a multiethnic cabinet
3. Currency and infrastructure reforms
4. Western-style education systems
5. Professional military training

Simultaneously, Kang Youwei gained direct access to Emperor Guangxu through his appointment to the Zongli Yamen in 1898. His proposals synthesized Japanese and Western models, particularly admiring Ito Hirobumi’s Meiji reforms.

The Hundred Days of Reform (June–September 1898)

Between June 11 and September 21, 1898, Emperor Guangxu issued over 40 reform edicts, including:

– Abolishing the eight-legged essay examination format
– Converting temples into modern schools
– Establishing Peking University (Jingshi Daxuetang)
– Creating patent laws and translation bureaus
– Designating Shiwu Bao (The China Progress) as official gazette

These measures triggered fierce opposition from conservative mandarins and Empress Dowager Cixi, who saw them as threats to Manchu dominance.

The September Coup and Its Aftermath

The reform movement collapsed dramatically:

1. Power Struggle: Cixi reassumed control on September 21, confining Guangxu to the Yingtai Pavilion.
2. Failed Counter-Coup: Reformers’ plan to enlist general Yuan Shikai backfired when he betrayed them to conservative leader Ronglu.
3. Bloody Purge: Six reformers including Tan Sitong were executed without trial on September 28. Tan’s last words—”Let my death inspire a thousand successors”—became legendary.
4. Exile Networks: Kang Youwei escaped to Hong Kong via British intervention; Liang Qichao fled to Japan.

Legacy and Historical Significance

Though short-lived, the reform attempt left enduring impacts:

1. Intellectual Awakening: The movement popularized constitutional monarchy concepts, paving the way for 20th-century revolutions.
2. Media Expansion: Chinese newspapers proliferated from 19 to 70 between 1895–1898.
3. Educational Reform: The abolished examination system was permanently replaced in 1905.
4. Gender Progress: China’s first modern girls’ school opened in Shanghai (1897).

Modern assessments vary—some view it as a missed opportunity for peaceful transition, others as proof of Qing dynasty’s irreformability. What remains undeniable is that the movement’s ideals outlived its suppression, ultimately contributing to China’s turbulent journey toward modernity.