The Rise of the Dzungar Khanate and Qing Expansion

In the spring of 1688, as the Qing Empire negotiated the Treaty of Nerchinsk with Russia following the Siege of Albazin, a new threat emerged from the Mongolian steppes. Galdan Boshugtu Khan, leader of the Dzungar Mongols, led 30,000 troops across the Khangai Mountains—the same region where Han dynasty general Dou Xian had crushed the Northern Xiongnu centuries earlier. By August, Galdan had defeated the Khalkha Mongols, forcing over 100,000 refugees to flee southward into Qing territory.

This marked the opening act of the Kangxi-Galdan Wars (1690-1697), a pivotal conflict that would determine control over Inner Asia. The Dzungar Khanate, inheriting the legacy of the Oirat Confederation that once captured a Ming emperor at Tumu Fortress (1449), represented the last major nomadic power capable of challenging Qing supremacy.

Military Innovations on the Steppe

What made this conflict extraordinary was its technological dimension—a “cavalry duel in the age of firearms” where both sides employed combined arms tactics:

The Dzungar Military Machine
– Camel Artillery: Adopting Ottoman-style “zamburak” tactics, Galdan mounted light swivel guns on camels for mobile fire support
– Elite Cavalry: 20,000 households (60,000 people) provided hardened steppe warriors
– Firearm Integration: While Russia refused official arms sales, Dzungar forces acquired muskets through Central Asian trade

Qing Military Reforms
– Artillery Advancements: Under Jesuit Ferdinand Verbiest, the Qing developed massive siege guns like the “Divine Might Invincible General Cannon”
– Firearm Battalions: Kangxi established specialized Manchu firearm units in 1691
– Logistical Superiority: Ability to field 100,000+ troops with 300,000 horses for extended campaigns

Three Decisive Battles

### 1. Battle of Ulan Butung (1690): A Tactical Stalemate
After initial Dzungar success at Urgu River (1689), Kangxi personally led 40,000 troops to confront Galdan’s “camel fortress” at Ulan Butung. The Qing suffered heavy casualties including Kangxi’s uncle Tong Guogang, revealing flaws in their cavalry-heavy tactics against Dzungar firepower.

### 2. The “Linked Palisade” Innovation
Post-Ulan Butung, Qing forces developed new combined arms tactics:
– Forward-moving wooden barricades (“lianhuan benzha”)
– Rotating volley fire from matchlock units
– Improved coordination between artillery and cavalry

### 3. Battle of Jao Modo (1696): The Decisive Blow
In a masterstroke of grand strategy, Kangxi mobilized 150,000 troops across three fronts. At Jao Modo near modern Ulaanbaatar:
– Western Route Army under Fei Yanggu outmaneuvered Galdan’s forces
– Qing artillery dominated high ground positions
– Galdan’s wife Anu died in combat wearing golden armor
The Dzungar army was annihilated, with only dozens escaping alongside Galdan.

The Geopolitical Aftermath

Kangxi’s victory had far-reaching consequences:
1. Mongolian Settlement: 1691 Dolon Nor Assembly incorporated Khalkha Mongols into Qing system
2. Military Stagnation: With no major rivals, Qing firearm development stagnated post-1697
3. Historical Irony: The very weapons that secured Qing dominance—later neglected—would fail against Western powers in the Opium Wars

As historian Dai Yi notes, “The Kangxi-Galdan conflict represented both the pinnacle and turning point of traditional Chinese warfare—a fleeting moment when East Asian firearms briefly rivaled the West, before the long decline began.” The camel guns of the steppe and bronze cannons of Beijing had written their final chapter in the age of nomadic empires.