The Shattered Greek World After the Peloponnesian War
The Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) left Greece in ruins. Athens, once the cultural and political heart of the Greek world, lay devastated—its economy in shambles, its Long Walls demolished, and its population decimated by war, plague, and political purges. The playwright Aristophanes captured the despair of the era in The Assemblywomen, where Athenian women humorously yet bitterly propose radical solutions to the city’s woes, including laws mandating that men prioritize older women in romantic pursuits.
Sparta, the nominal victor, fared little better. Years of warfare had disrupted agriculture, destroyed olive groves and vineyards, and left many Spartans struggling to feed themselves. Thousands turned to mercenary work, seeking employment abroad—particularly in Persia, where internal power struggles offered lucrative opportunities.
Cyrus the Younger and the Greek Mercenaries
In 404 BC, Artaxerxes II ascended the Persian throne, but his younger brother Cyrus, satrap of Sardis, harbored ambitions of his own. To challenge his brother, Cyrus recruited over ten thousand Greek mercenaries, including the young historian Xenophon, who would later document their extraordinary journey.
Cyrus initially claimed his forces were for defending Persian territories in Asia Minor, but by 401 BC, his true intentions became clear. He marched his army toward Babylon, aiming to seize the throne. The Persian satrap Tissaphernes alerted Artaxerxes, who mobilized his forces—though slowly, due to his notorious procrastination.
The Battle of Cunaxa and Cyrus’s Downfall
The two armies clashed at Cunaxa, north of Babylon. Despite being outnumbered, Cyrus’s forces fought fiercely. In a dramatic moment, Cyrus charged his brother and struck him with a javelin, wounding but not killing him. However, Cyrus himself fell to a stray arrow, leaving his army leaderless.
The Greek mercenaries, now stranded deep in enemy territory, refused surrender. Instead, they elected new leaders, including Xenophon, and began their legendary retreat—known as the Anabasis, or “The March of the Ten Thousand.”
The Epic Retreat of the Ten Thousand
The Greeks faced unimaginable hardships: hostile terrain, Persian harassment, starvation, and brutal winters. They marched through deserts, climbed snow-covered mountains, and endured freezing temperatures. Many died from exposure or battle wounds.
After nearly a year, their perseverance paid off. As they crested a mountain, the cry “Thalatta! Thalatta!” (“The sea! The sea!”) echoed through their ranks—they had reached the Black Sea and safety. Their successful retreat exposed Persia’s military weaknesses and inspired future Greek ambitions against the empire.
Greece’s Continued Fragmentation and the Rise of Macedonia
Despite their shared ordeal, Greece remained divided. Sparta reneged on promises to Persia, sparking the Corinthian War (395–387 BC), which ended with Persia enforcing the “King’s Peace.” Meanwhile, the Athenian orator Isocrates championed pan-Hellenism, urging Greeks to unite against Persia.
Enter Philip II of Macedon. Crowned in 359 BC, Philip transformed Macedonia from a backwater kingdom into a military powerhouse. He reorganized the army, introduced the phalanx, and expanded his territory through diplomacy and conquest. By 338 BC, his victory at Chaeronea—where his son Alexander first distinguished himself—secured Macedonian dominance over Greece.
The Legacy of Philip and Alexander’s Ascent
Philip’s vision of a united Greece under Macedonian leadership culminated in the Corinthian League, a coalition aimed at invading Persia. But his ambitions were cut short in 336 BC when he was assassinated by a disgruntled bodyguard, Pausanias.
Alexander, now king, inherited a fragile empire. He swiftly eliminated rivals, including Attalus, a general who had insulted him, and prepared to fulfill his father’s dream: the conquest of Persia.
Conclusion: From Chaos to Empire
The March of the Ten Thousand revealed Persia’s vulnerabilities, while Greece’s internal strife paved the way for Macedonian ascendancy. Philip’s unification of Greece and Alexander’s subsequent campaigns would reshape the ancient world, marking the end of the independent Greek city-states and the dawn of a new Hellenistic era. Their story remains a testament to the transformative power of leadership, strategy, and sheer determination.