The Arrival of European Colonizers in East Asia
The early 17th century witnessed a dramatic clash of civilizations as European maritime powers expanded into East Asian waters. Following the Renaissance, Portugal pioneered the Age of Exploration, establishing trade monopolies in spices from Southeast Asia. By 1511, Portugal had conquered Malacca, the vital hub of Asian commerce, and soon extended its reach to China’s doorstep.
Portuguese traders first arrived at Tuen Mun near Guangzhou in 1513, but their subsequent pirate activities along China’s coast led to their expulsion by Ming naval forces in 1521-1523. Undeterred, they shifted operations to Zhejiang and Fujian before finally securing a foothold in Macau in 1557 through bribery and diplomacy. Meanwhile, Spain entered the region via the Americas, establishing itself in the Philippines by 1571 and initiating the lucrative Manila-Acapulco galleon trade.
This European encroachment forced the Ming Dynasty to reconsider its restrictive maritime policies. In 1567, the Ming partially lifted its sea ban, permitting private trade at Yuegang (Moon Harbor) in Fujian while still prohibiting commerce with Japan. This created a dual-port system: Macau handled Western trade while Yuegang managed Southeast Asian exchanges.
The Dutch East India Company’s Aggressive Expansion
As latecomers to Asian trade, the Dutch adopted particularly aggressive tactics. Following their independence from Spain in 1581, the newly formed Dutch Republic established the Dutch East India Company (VOC) in 1602 with unprecedented powers – including the right to wage war and establish colonies.
The VOC implemented an ambitious “intra-Asian trade” strategy under Governor-General Jan Pieterszoon Coen, aiming to monopolize regional commerce by controlling spice production in the Moluccas (1621), displacing the Portuguese from Malacca (1641), and establishing Batavia (Jakarta) as their Asian headquarters in 1619. However, their ultimate goal – direct trade with China – proved elusive.
The Penghu Crisis (1604) and Early Sino-Dutch Conflicts
Dutch attempts to establish trade with China began disastrously. In 1604, Admiral Wybrand van Warwijck occupied the Penghu Islands (Pescadores), only to be persuaded to leave by Ming commander Shen Yourong after four months of stalemate. Subsequent Dutch efforts to trade along China’s coast between 1607-1622 met with repeated failures and growing Ming suspicion.
The situation escalated in 1622 when VOC commander Cornelis Reijersen launched a full-scale attack on Macau. After being repelled by Portuguese defenders, Reijersen retreated to Penghu where the Dutch began constructing fortifications and raiding Chinese coastal villages. The Ming responded by massing forces under Governor Nan Juyi, who initiated a prolonged siege in 1624 that ultimately forced the Dutch to abandon Penghu and retreat to Taiwan (then called Tayouan by Europeans).
The Rise of Zheng Zhilong and the Fujianese Maritime Network
Amidst these conflicts, a new power emerged from the Chinese maritime world – Zheng Zhilong (known to Europeans as Nicholas Iquan). Beginning as an interpreter for the Dutch, Zheng rose through the ranks of the Sino-Japanese smuggling network led by merchant-pirates Li Dan and Yan Siqi. Following their deaths in 1625, Zheng consolidated control over their operations, creating a formidable private navy.
After accepting Ming amnesty in 1628, Zheng Zhilong skillfully balanced his official position with continued private trade. His forces defeated rival pirates like Li Kuiqi and Zhong Bin (1629-1632), establishing Zheng as the dominant power along China’s southeast coast. The Dutch initially saw Zheng as a potential partner, but their relationship grew increasingly strained as Zheng’s commercial interests diverged from VOC objectives.
The Battle of Liaoluo Bay (1633) and Its Aftermath
Tensions culminated in 1633 when VOC governor Hans Putmans launched a surprise attack on Zheng’s fleet at Xiamen (Amoy), destroying much of the Ming navy. In retaliation, Zheng and Fujian governor Zou Weilian assembled a massive fleet of fire ships that decisively defeated the Dutch at Liaoluo Bay in October 1633. This victory marked a turning point – while the Dutch retained their base in Taiwan, they abandoned hopes of forcing open Chinese trade through military means.
Following the battle, Zheng Zhilong emerged as the undisputed master of China’s coastal waters. By the 1640s, his maritime empire controlled trade routes stretching from Japan to Southeast Asia, with hundreds of ships paying tribute for safe passage. The Zheng organization became so powerful that, as one contemporary observed, “no merchant vessel dared sail without a Zheng flag.”
Legacy and Historical Significance
The Ming-Dutch conflicts and Zheng family’s rise represented a pivotal moment in East Asian history. For China, these events demonstrated both the vulnerability and resilience of its maritime frontier. While unable to completely expel European interlopers, the Ming successfully contained their influence through a combination of military force and regulated trade.
For the Dutch, the failed campaigns against China necessitated a shift in strategy. Rather than confrontation, they focused on developing Taiwan as an entrepôt for indirect trade with China – a policy that would continue until Zheng Chenggong (Koxinga) expelled them in 1662.
Most significantly, the Zheng organization created the first integrated Chinese maritime empire, blending official legitimacy with private commerce. This model would reach its zenith under Zheng Chenggong, who transformed Taiwan into the last bastion of Ming loyalism. The Zheng legacy endures as a testament to the dynamism of China’s maritime tradition and its complex engagement with early globalization.