The Origins and Escalation of the Hundred Years’ War (1259-1328)

The Norman Roots of Anglo-French Conflict

The complex relationship between England and France that would erupt into the Hundred Years’ War had its origins in the early medieval period. Viking raids along the French coast led to a fateful decision in 911 AD when Charles III of West Francia granted the Viking leader Rollo and his people the fertile lands along the English Channel coast, creating the Duchy of Normandy. These Norse settlers, known as Normans, established their own duchy, abandoned piracy, converted to Christianity, and adopted French culture while maintaining their distinct identity.

The political landscape changed dramatically in 1066 when William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy, crossed the Channel and claimed the English throne. For the next 150 years, the Norman dukes ruled both Normandy and England, creating a cross-Channel empire. This situation became even more complicated when the Norman dukes intermarried with the counts of Anjou, merging their territories. By the early 13th century, the English king controlled Normandy, Anjou, and England – a combination that rivaled the power of the French crown itself.

The Loss of Continental Territories

The early 13th century saw a major shift in this balance of power. King John of England’s misrule allowed the French king Philip Augustus to reclaim Normandy and Anjou in 1204. Forced to retreat to England, John was compelled by his nobles to sign the Magna Carta in 1215, barely maintaining his throne. This loss of continental territories created a lasting grievance among subsequent English monarchs, who continued to hold lands in France while dreaming of recovering their ancestors’ lost domains.

The English kings’ remaining French possessions, particularly in southwestern France, made them a thorn in the side of the French monarchy’s centralizing ambitions. From 1154 to 1204, the Angevin empire reached its greatest extent, with English rulers controlling Normandy, Maine, Anjou, Touraine, Poitou, and Aquitaine. By 1224, all these territories except Aquitaine had fallen to the French.

The Treaty of Paris and Its Consequences

The 1259 Treaty of Paris between Henry III of England and Louis IX of France formalized the English king’s status as a vassal for his French lands. Henry renounced claims to lost territories in exchange for recognition of his rights to Bordeaux, Bayonne, and their hinterlands (Gascony), with promises of restored lands in Aquitaine. This treaty crucially confirmed the English king’s vassal status to the French crown, requiring him to pay homage – a humiliating ceremony where Henry III knelt before Louis IX in the royal gardens of Paris.

This feudal relationship created constant tension, as English kings resented owing allegiance to France while being sovereign in England. The situation was further complicated by the fact that local lords in English-held French territories could appeal directly to the French king, who even claimed the right to summon the English king to Paris for judgment.

The Road to War (1294-1328)

The late 13th century saw renewed conflict. In 1294, war broke out between Philip IV of France and Edward I of England, followed by another conflict in 1324 between Charles IV and Edward II. These wars followed a similar pattern: French encouragement of Gascon complaints against English rule, followed by confiscation of English territories when the king refused to appear in Paris.

The 1294-1298 war proved costly for both sides. Philip spent at least £432,000 (61.5% of his income) on the conflict, while Edward’s heavy war taxes earned criticism. The financial strain forced Edward to reissue Magna Carta in 1297, establishing the principle that new taxes required parliamentary approval – a landmark in English constitutional history.

Meanwhile, France allied with Scotland against England, leading to Edward I’s invasion of Scotland in 1296. Though initially successful, English brutality sparked rebellion (dramatized in Braveheart), and Scotland regained independence under Robert the Bruce after the 1314 Battle of Bannockburn.

The 1324-1327 war began over a minor border incident but revealed deeper tensions. When Charles IV confiscated Edward II’s last French possession (Gascony), it demonstrated France’s growing assertiveness. The conflict ended with another humiliating peace for England, including heavy war indemnities.

The Succession Crisis of 1328

Charles IV’s death in 1328 without a male heir created a succession crisis. The English claim through Edward III’s mother was rejected in favor of Philip of Valois, establishing the Valois dynasty. While England didn’t immediately press its claim, this dispute would later provide the pretext for the Hundred Years’ War.

By 1328, both nations had young kings with uncertain legitimacy – the 14-year-old Edward III in England and 35-year-old Philip VI in France. Philip consolidated his position with victory over Flemish rebels at Cassel in 1328, while Edward faced ongoing problems with Scotland.

When Edward was forced to pay homage to Philip in 1329 for his French lands, he deliberately limited the terms to maintain future flexibility. This ongoing tension over the status of English territories in France, combined with the succession dispute, created the tinder that would ignite the Hundred Years’ War in 1337.

The stage was set for a conflict that would last 116 years, reshape both nations, and mark the transition from medieval to early modern warfare. The complex web of feudal relationships, territorial disputes, and national ambitions made war increasingly inevitable as both monarchies sought to assert their authority and expand their domains.