The Fragile Alliance That Saved the Qing Dynasty
In the turbulent 1860s, the Qing Empire faced existential threats from the Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864) and foreign encroachment. An unlikely triumvirate emerged to stabilize the crumbling dynasty: the two Dowager Empresses (Cixi and Ci’an) and Prince Gong (Yixin), the Xianfeng Emperor’s brother. This coalition successfully crushed the Taiping rebels and initiated the Tongzhi Restoration (1862-1874), a series of modernization efforts. However, beneath the surface of this political partnership simmered tensions over power distribution in the regency government established for the young Tongzhi Emperor.
The delicate balance collapsed on April 2, 1865, when the Dowager Empresses issued an edict accusing Prince Gong of overstepping his authority. Contemporary records suggest the prince had grown overconfident from his dual roles: leading the Grand Council (the empire’s highest administrative body) and representing the emperor in official audiences while the empresses remained behind screens, as tradition dictated. The sudden dismissal shocked the court, but Prince Gong’s compliance surprised observers—he surrendered power without resistance.
The Political Earthquake and Its Aftermath
The empresses’ victory proved short-lived. Senior officials, particularly those in the Grand Council and military command, protested vehemently. One bold minister warned that imperial infighting would invite endless trouble—a thinly veiled threat about renewed rebellions. Within weeks, facing mounting opposition and recognizing her still-precarious position (despite Ci’an’s nominal support, Cixi lacked independent power bases), the Dowager Empress Cixi orchestrated a reconciliation.
Prince Gong returned to most of his former positions after a month-long “punishment,” though he lost control of the Grand Council. To cement the truce, the empresses adopted his daughter as their own, granting her princess status. This episode marked a turning point—while Prince Gong retained influence, the empresses had demonstrated their ultimate authority. The incident also revealed Cixi’s emerging political style: combining ruthless power plays with pragmatic retreats when necessary.
The Rise of Han Officials: Zeng Guofan and Li Hongzhang
The prince’s temporary fall created opportunities for Han Chinese officials who had gained prominence suppressing the Taiping Rebellion. Two figures rose to national prominence:
Zeng Guofan (1811-1872)
A Confucian scholar-general, Zeng distinguished himself during the siege of Nanjing (1864), earning a marquisate. As Governor-General of Zhili, his handling of the 1870 Tianjin Massacre (discussed later) drew criticism but showcased his pragmatic approach to foreign relations—balancing patriotism with recognition of Western strength.
Li Hongzhang (1823-1901)
Zeng’s protégé, Li, displayed greater ambition. After successful campaigns in Anhui, he became Governor-General of Jiangsu, Jiangxi, and Anhui. Though only made a viscount, his iconic yellow court jacket (a rare honor) symbolized his growing status. Unlike Zeng, Li would eventually become Cixi’s key operative in foreign affairs.
The Tianjin Massacre (1870): A Crisis That Shaped Qing Foreign Policy
This anti-foreign riot exposed deepening tensions between China and Western powers, particularly France. Key factors included:
– Resentment over French seizure of a Buddhist temple for their consulate
– Rumors that Catholic orphanages harmed children (fueled by high mortality rates from disease)
– The arrogant behavior of French consul Henri Fontanier, who provoked crowds
On June 21, 1870, mobs killed 20 foreigners (mostly French) and burned churches. The incident occurred as France faced the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871), preventing military retaliation.
Diplomatic Fallout and Li Hongzhang’s Ascendancy
The Qing court assigned Zeng Guofan to investigate, but foreign distrust led to his replacement by Li Hongzhang. Li’s resolution—executing 16 rioters, exiling officials, and paying 400,000 taels in reparations—established his reputation as a crisis manager. His success earned him promotion to the Grand Council, positioning him as Zeng’s successor after 1872.
For Cixi, the massacre was a wake-up call about Western power. Though she temporarily adopted a conciliatory approach, her later support for the Boxers (1900) would repeat earlier mistakes—a cycle Li Hongzhang would again help resolve during the Boxer Protocol negotiations shortly before his death.
Legacy: The Patterns of Late Qing Politics
The 1865 power struggle and 1870 massacre revealed enduring dynamics:
1. Regency Politics: Cixi’s manipulation of Prince Gong previewed her decades-long dominance through a combination of patronage and coercion.
2. Han Official Rise: Zeng and Li’s careers marked the growing importance of Han officials in a Manchu-led regime.
3. Foreign Policy Dilemmas: The Tianjin settlement became a template for “coercive appeasement”—concessions under threat that failed to address root causes of anti-foreign sentiment.
These events set the stage for China’s tumultuous late 19th century, where internal power struggles and external pressures would ultimately overwhelm the Qing system. The careers of Prince Gong, Li Hongzhang, and Cixi herself demonstrate how personal rivalries and institutional weaknesses constrained China’s response to modernity’s challenges.