The Challenge of Ruling a Vast Han Majority

When the Manchu-led Qing Dynasty crossed the Shanhai Pass in 1644, they faced an unprecedented governance dilemma. As a numerically small ethnic group with relatively underdeveloped social structures compared to the Han Chinese civilization they conquered, the Qing rulers needed sophisticated strategies to maintain control. Under the leadership of Prince Regent Dorgon, the dynasty implemented a dual approach: co-opting Han Chinese elites while alleviating burdens on commoners—a political balancing act that proved crucial for stabilizing their rule.

Co-opting the Han Elite: A Strategy for Legitimacy

The Qing conquest coincided with the collapse of the Ming Dynasty following peasant rebellions. Seizing this opportunity, Dorgon’s advisor Fan Wencheng proposed framing the Manchu forces as avengers of the fallen Ming emperor rather than foreign invaders. This clever propaganda portrayed the Qing as restorers of order rather than destroyers of Han civilization.

Dorgon implemented several key measures to win over Han elites:

### Honoring the Fallen Ming

In a masterstroke of political theater, Dorgon ordered three days of mourning for the last Ming emperor Chongzhen and provided proper imperial burials for the royal family. This symbolic gesture, coming from the “enemy state,” significantly softened Han resistance. Contemporary records note how this act made “officials and commoners greatly pleased, all praising our dynasty’s benevolence.”

### Accommodating Ming Nobility

Contrary to expectations, the Qing allowed surrendered Ming princes to retain their titles. When the Ming imperial relative Zhu Shuai submitted, Dorgon praised his wisdom and appointed him as prefect of Baoding. The regime also protected the property rights of Ming nobility, decreeing that “lands belonging to Ming nobles shall remain as before—this being a special imperial grace.”

### Recruiting Ming Officials

The Qing actively incorporated former Ming officials into their administration. Prominent examples included:
– Hong Chengchou, appointed as Grand Secretary and crucial in pacifying southern resistance
– Chen Mingxia, who rose to become Minister of Personnel despite initially serving the rebel Li Zicheng
– Wang Hongzuo, tasked with compiling the foundational tax code “Complete Book of Taxes and Labor”

These appointments created a bridge between the old and new regimes while utilizing Han administrative expertise.

Reforming Ming Abuses to Win Popular Support

Recognizing that Ming misrule had fueled rebellion, the Qing implemented reforms to alleviate popular grievances:

### Eliminating Oppressive Taxes

The Qing abolished the notorious “Three Levies” that had burdened Ming subjects—military taxes that sometimes exceeded regular taxes severalfold. When some suggested maintaining these surcharges, Fan Wencheng argued successfully for using the lighter Wanli-era tax rates as the new standard.

### Curbing Eunuch Power

The Qing drastically reduced the political influence of palace eunuchs, a corrupt Ming power bloc that had numbered over 10,000. Unlike the Ming practice, eunuchs like the notorious Cao Huachun found themselves sidelined in the new administration.

### Combating Corruption

Dorgon publicly condemned Ming-era bribery: “The Ming fell because officials practiced corruption openly, promoting the unworthy who had money while neglecting the virtuous who were poor.” He instituted harsh penalties for graft, including beheading, which contemporary observers noted as a popular reform.

The Turning Point: Ethnic Policies and Their Consequences

While the Qing initially pursued conciliatory policies, their ethnic regulations—particularly the hair shaving order—sparked widespread resistance.

### The Controversial Queue Ordinance

Manchu custom required shaving the forehead and braiding the remaining hair—a stark contrast to Han hairstyles. What began as a voluntary symbol of submission became compulsory in 1645 when Dorgon declared: “Comply and you become our subjects; hesitate and you are rebellious enemies deserving death.”

Even Confucius’s descendant Kong Wenxi petitioned to retain traditional hair, only to receive a stern rebuke. The policy’s harsh enforcement fueled anti-Qing sentiment and rebellions across China.

Land Seizures and Social Dislocation

The influx of Manchu bannermen into China proper created an urgent need for land allocation, leading to the controversial “enclosure” policies:

### Three Waves of Land Enclosures

Between 1644-1647, the Qing conducted massive land seizures around Beijing, ostensibly targeting “ownerless” Ming noble estates but increasingly confiscating commoner lands. A 1647 decree admitted these actions caused “the circled people to become displaced, spreading rumors and turning to banditry.”

### Devastating Impact

Local gazetteers reveal the enclosures’ staggering scale:
– Pinggu County: 70% Manchu-owned
– Miyun County: Only 1/6 land remaining for Han farmers
– Baodi County: From 6,890 qing originally to just 58 qing remaining
– Yutian County: From 5,216 qing to 617 qing

These seizures, combined with the “fugitive slave laws” that punished those sheltering escaped Manchu-bonded laborers, created widespread social instability in northern China.

Legacy of the Early Qing Governance Model

The Qing’s initial policies established patterns that would characterize their 268-year rule:

### The Dual-Edged Ethnic Policies

While the queue order and enclosure policies fostered resentment, the co-option of Han elites and administrative reforms created a durable hybrid system. The Kangxi Emperor later moderated the most extreme measures, but the fundamental Manchu-Han hierarchy persisted.

### Lasting Administrative Innovations

The Qing synthesis of Manchu military rule with Han bureaucratic traditions proved remarkably effective. The early decisions to retain Ming tax systems (minus the abuses) and incorporate Han officials laid foundations for the prosperous Kangxi-Qianlong era.

Ultimately, the Qing’s success stemmed from their pragmatic combination of symbolic Han traditions with Manchu power structures—a delicate balance that maintained stability until the dynasty’s final decades. The lessons of this transition period remain relevant for understanding how conquest dynasties negotiate the challenges of cross-cultural governance.