The Powder Keg of the Early Qing Dynasty

The year 1673 marked a turning point in the reign of the 20-year-old Kangxi Emperor. In November, the 62-year-old Pingxi Prince Wu Sangui raised his banner of rebellion in Kunming, plunging the Qing Empire into its most severe internal crisis since its founding. This conflict, later known as the Rebellion of the Three Feudatories, would rage for eight brutal years, testing the young emperor’s leadership and the dynasty’s resilience.

The roots of this rebellion stretched back to the Ming-Qing transition. Wu Sangui, a former Ming general who had famously opened Shanhai Pass to the Manchus in 1644, had been rewarded with vast territories in Yunnan. Alongside two other powerful Han warlords – the Pingnan and Jingnan princes in Guangdong and Fujian – these “Three Feudatories” became semi-independent power centers. By the 1670s, their autonomy posed an existential threat to Qing centralization.

Lightning Campaign and the Anti-Qing Coalition

Wu’s rebellion began with stunning success. Within months, his forces controlled Yunnan, Guizhou, Sichuan, and Hunan, establishing the short-lived “Great Zhou” regime. What made Wu particularly dangerous was his ability to forge alliances with other anti-Qing forces:

– Geng Jingzhong in Fujian, who controlled coastal trade routes
– Zheng Jing in Taiwan, inheritor of the Ming-loyalist Zheng regime
– Sun Yanling in Guangxi, controlling southern approaches
– Wang Fuchen in Shaanxi-Gansu, a former Qing favorite turned rebel
– Burni of the Chahar Mongols, who threatened Beijing’s northern flank

By 1675, this coalition controlled seven provinces directly and influenced several others, reducing Qing control to just five unaffected provinces north of the Yangtze. The empire seemed on the brink of fragmentation.

Kangxi’s Strategic Genius

Facing this multi-front crisis, the young emperor demonstrated remarkable strategic acumen:

1. Divide and Conquer: Exploiting rivalries between rebel leaders, especially between Zheng Jing and Geng Jingzhong in Fujian
2. Prioritization: Focusing first on the northwestern threat from Wang Fuchen, securing the vital Shaanxi-Gansu corridor
3. Flexible Diplomacy: Offering generous terms to defecting rebels while maintaining military pressure
4. Resource Mobilization: Leveraging the empire’s economic base, especially the untouched Yangtze Delta region

The 1676 surrender of Geng Jingzhong marked the turning point. One by one, the coalition members defected or were defeated, leaving Wu Sangui isolated by 1677.

Military Innovations and the Qing Advantage

The Qing victory rested on several key factors:

– Green Standard Army: Kangxi effectively utilized Han Chinese troops, deploying over 400,000 during the conflict
– Cavalry Superiority: Manchu and Mongol horsemen remained decisive in open battles
– Artillery Innovation: Jesuit-designed cannons under Ferdinand Verbiest countered Wu’s initial firearms advantage
– Logistical Network: Uninterrupted revenue from Jiangnan financed the prolonged campaign

Wu Sangui’s 1678 self-proclamation as emperor in Hengzhou smacked of desperation. His death later that year and his grandson’s 1681 suicide in Kunming marked the rebellion’s final collapse.

Legacy of the Rebellion

The Eight-Year War profoundly shaped Qing governance:

1. Centralization: Eliminated semi-independent fiefdoms, strengthening imperial control
2. Military Reform: Established the Green Standard Army as the dynasty’s backbone
3. Border Policy: Paved the way for later campaigns against the Dzungars and Taiwan
4. Kangxi’s Authority: Cemented the emperor’s personal rule after regency domination

Historians still debate Wu Sangui’s missed opportunities – particularly his failure to strike at the Yangtze Delta. Yet the rebellion’s ultimate significance lies in its demonstration of Qing resilience. By defeating this coalition of Han, Mongol, and Ming loyalist forces, Kangxi proved the dynasty’s ability to integrate China’s diverse regions under Manchu rule, setting the stage for the High Qing golden age that followed.