The Cracks in the Golden Age

The mid-Qianlong era (1735-1796) marked a turning point in Qing dynasty history. While often remembered as China’s last golden age of imperial prosperity, this period witnessed the eruption of widespread popular uprisings that exposed the dynasty’s weakening foundations. These rebellions—led by peasants, ethnic minorities, and secret societies—emerged from a toxic combination of administrative corruption, economic distress, and ethnic tensions.

The Wang Lun Uprising of 1774 in Shandong province became the first major crack in the Qing facade. It was followed by the Gansu Muslim Revolts (1781-1784), the Lin Shuangwen Rebellion in Taiwan (1786-1788), and the Miao People’s Uprising in Hunan-Guizhou (1795-1806). Together, these movements formed a pattern of resistance that drained Qing resources and morale, signaling the empire’s transition from zenith to decline.

The Spark: Wang Lun’s Rebellion (1774)

### Origins in the Clear Water Sect

The uprising began with the Clear Water Sect (清水教), an offshoot of the White Lotus tradition active in eastern Shandong. Its leader Wang Lun, a charismatic healer from Shouzhang County, capitalized on local grievances against corrupt officials who imposed heavy taxes despite poor harvests. The sect’s promise of salvation through simple rituals (“drinking one cup of water to survive 49 days without food”) attracted desperate followers.

### The Revolt Erupts

In August 1774, Wang Lun declared himself the “Purple Star” (a millenarian title) and launched attacks on Shouzhang, Tangyi, and Yanggu counties. His forces adopted a Robin Hood approach:

– Targeted government granaries while sparing civilians
– Enforced strict discipline (executing a soldier for underpaying a fruit vendor)
– Gained popular support through fair trade for supplies

### Strategic Importance

The rebels’ capture of Linqing—a critical canal junction for grain transport to Beijing—sent shockwaves through the imperial court. The Qing response, led by Grand Secretary Shu Hede, revealed the military’s initial incompetence against the rebels’ guerrilla tactics.

### Heroic Last Stand

The rebellion featured remarkable figures like Wu Sanniang, a female martial artist who led daring urban defenses. Despite being outnumbered, rebels held Linqing’s old city for weeks using:

– Night attacks with smoke screens from burning crops
– Makeshift weapons (kitchen knives tied to poles)
– Psychological warfare (black uniforms creating spectral appearances)

Wang Lun’s final resistance—burning himself alive rather than surrendering—set a precedent for later rebellions. The brutal Qing reprisals (mass executions including children) only deepened popular resentment.

Ethnic and Religious Revolts: The Gansu Muslim Uprisings

### Roots in Sectarian Conflict

Gansu’s rebellions (1781-1784) stemmed from tensions between “Old Teaching” and “New Teaching” Sufi orders. The New Teaching, founded by Ma Mingxin, offered:

– Simplified rituals reducing financial burdens
– Egalitarian ideals challenging hereditary religious authority
– Economic mutual aid among followers

### The Breaking Point

In 1781, violent clashes between sects prompted Qing officials to arrest Ma Mingxin. This transformed sectarian conflict into anti-Qing rebellion under Su Sishisan’s leadership. Rebels demonstrated remarkable resilience:

– Held strategic positions in Lanzhou’s mountainous terrain
– Excelled in marksmanship with hunting rifles
– Withstood siege tactics (including water deprivation)

### Qing Divide-and-Rule Tactics

The court exploited sectarian divisions through a “use rebels to fight rebels” strategy, arming Old Teaching adherents against the New Teaching. Post-rebellion reprisals were horrific—nine of twelve Salar Muslim communities were exterminated.

The 1784 Stone Fortress Rebellion under Tian Wu continued the resistance, showcasing sophisticated preparation with mountain strongholds. Though ultimately crushed, these revolts cost the Qing over a million taels of silver and 20,000 troops.

The Island Revolt: Lin Shuangwen’s Taiwan Uprising

### Heaven and Earth Society’s Role

This 1786-1788 rebellion, organized by the anti-Qing Heaven and Earth Society, reflected Taiwan’s unique grievances:

– Land taxes double mainland rates
– Rampant corruption (“officials treating posts as business ventures”)
– Exploitation of indigenous Gaoshan people

### Cross-Ethnic Alliance

Lin Shuangwen’s forces united Han settlers and Gaoshan tribes, even appointing a female indigenous leader (Jinniang) as marshal. Their policies won popular support:

– Fair compensation for requisitioned goods
– Equal treatment of ethnic groups
– Strategic grain distribution (selling rice at 800 coins vs. government’s 3,000)

### Qing Countermeasures

Facing initial defeats, the Qing employed:

– Psychological warfare (offering amnesty to defectors)
– Economic blockade of rebel areas
– Mobilization of seven provinces’ forces

The rebellion’s collapse came from internal divisions—lack of centralized command and betrayal by key leaders like Zhuang Xishe. Nevertheless, it drained Qing coffers of 10 million silver taels.

The Miao Frontier Rebellion (1795-1806)

### Land and Debt Exploitation

In Hunan-Guizhou borderlands, the Miao people revolted against:

– Usurious loans (200% annual interest)
– Land seizures by Han settlers
– Corrupt “native officials”

### Guerrilla Warfare

Under leaders like Shi Liudeng, Miao fighters utilized:

– Mountain terrain advantage
– Unique combat skills (deadly slingshot techniques)
– Mobile tactics avoiding pitched battles

### Qing’s Costly Victory

The twelve-year conflict forced Qing concessions on land rights but required:

– Continuous troop deployments (diverted from White Lotus campaigns)
– Massive silver expenditures
– Reliance on ethnic collaborators like Wu Longdeng

Legacy of Resistance

These rebellions collectively:

1. Exposed Qing administrative weaknesses
2. Drained state finances (over 20 million taels spent)
3. Inspired later anti-Qing movements
4. Demonstrated cross-ethnic revolutionary potential

Though ultimately suppressed, they marked the end of the “High Qing” era, setting the stage for the dynasty’s nineteenth-century crises. The insurgents’ tactics—from Wang Lun’s urban warfare to Miao mountain resistance—would influence future revolutions, while their stories of sacrifice endured in folk memory as challenges to imperial oppression.