The Rise of the Dowager Empresses and a Child Emperor
In the mid-19th century, the Qing Dynasty faced unprecedented challenges—internal rebellions, foreign encroachments, and a weakening imperial authority. Against this backdrop, two formidable women emerged as the de facto rulers of China: the Dowager Empresses Cixi and Ci’an. One was the biological mother of the young Tongzhi Emperor, while the other held the legal status of his mother. This dual regency, established after the death of the Xianfeng Emperor in 1861, marked a rare period of female-dominated governance in imperial China.
Meanwhile, the empire’s foreign affairs fell to Prince Gong, the emperor’s uncle and a pragmatic statesman who navigated the treacherous waters of Western imperialism. As the Tongzhi Emperor approached adulthood—turning 16 by Western reckoning in 1872—the question of his marriage and eventual assumption of power became urgent. The court prepared for a pivotal transition: the end of regency and the beginning of the emperor’s personal rule.
The Imperial Marriage and the Struggle for Influence
In the autumn of 1872, over 600 Manchu noblewomen were summoned to the Forbidden City for the emperor’s selection of a consort. Against the dowagers’ preferences, Tongzhi chose Alute, the daughter of the highly respected Duke Chongqi—a rare Manchu scholar with the prestigious Hanlin Academy title. This decision reportedly displeased Empress Dowager Cixi, who viewed the selection as a challenge to her authority. Historical accounts suggest Cixi later rectified this “mistake” during the reign of her adopted son, the Guangxu Emperor, by handpicking a pliable niece as empress.
The wedding, held on October 16, 1872, followed meticulous rituals. Alute’s father timed her palanquin journey with a burning candle to ensure her arrival precisely at midnight, as decreed by imperial astrologers. The marriage symbolized more than a union—it was a political act that would shape court dynamics for years to come.
The Ill-Fated Reign: Between Tradition and Modernity
On February 23, 1873, the Tongzhi Emperor formally assumed power with a grand proclamation praising the dowagers’ regency. His ascension initially sparked hope for reform in a empire battered by the Taiping Rebellion and unequal treaties. However, his first major challenge emerged from an unexpected quarter: diplomatic protocol.
The “Kowtow Controversy,” a century-old dispute between China and Western powers, came to a head. European envoys refused to perform the traditional three kneelings and nine prostrations, leading Prince Gong to broker a compromise. In June 1873, foreign diplomats bowed (but did not kowtow) during an audience at the Ziguang Pavilion—a symbolic space historically used for tributary missions. This carefully staged event allowed China to save face while acknowledging Western diplomatic norms. Contemporary observers saw it as progress, but conservatives viewed it as dangerous concession.
Crisis and Decline: The Unraveling of an Era
The emperor’s personal rule coincided with escalating crises. In late 1873, Muslim uprisings erupted in Yunnan, later spreading to Shaanxi and Gansu. The brilliant general Zuo Zongtang eventually suppressed the rebellion, but not before it drained imperial resources. Meanwhile, foreign threats multiplied:
– Japan invaded Taiwan (1874) under pretext of murdered sailors, then annexed the Ryukyu Islands—a Qing tributary state.
– France began encroaching on Annam (Vietnam), another vassal state, culminating in the 1874 Treaty that ceded territory near Tonkin.
These events exposed Qing weakness, yet the emperor remained passive. His sole assertive act—stripping Prince Gong of his hereditary title in September 1874 for alleged disrespect—was reversed the next day by the dowagers, revealing where true power lay.
The Mysterious Death and Lasting Legacy
In December 1874, the court announced the emperor had contracted smallpox—traditionally considered a “joyous event” implying divine favor. His rapid decline sparked rumors. Did he die of illness (as official records state) or was he poisoned—a persistent theory blaming Cixi? The emperor’s death on January 12, 1875, aged just 19, remains controversial.
His burial site—contrary to geomantic principles by being placed near his father’s tomb rather than the Western Qing tombs—fueled superstitions about cursed luck. The subsequent Great North China Famine (1877–78) was seen by some as cosmic retribution.
The Tongzhi era represents a tragic crossroads. His failed reign underscored the Qing Dynasty’s inability to modernize while preserving its essence. The dowagers’ reassertion of power after his death set the stage for Cixi’s decades-long dominance—a period of both repression and reluctant reform that would ultimately culminate in the dynasty’s collapse.
For historians, Tongzhi’s brief rule offers poignant insights: a young emperor caught between tradition and change, his personal agency stifled by the very women who had safeguarded his throne, and an empire teetering on the brink of transformation. His story remains not just a tale of imperial China, but a universal narrative about the burdens of inherited power.