The Ascent of a New Emperor
In August 1735, the Yongzheng Emperor passed away, and his fourth son, Hongli, ascended the throne as the Qianlong Emperor, marking the beginning of a new era in Qing dynasty history. Qianlong, a ruler of remarkable political ambition, modeled his reign after his grandfather, the Kangxi Emperor. He centralized authority, personally oversaw state affairs, and maintained an unrelenting work ethic. Historical accounts, such as those by official Zhao Yi, describe Qianlong’s rigorous daily routine—rising before dawn to review memorials, even during military crises. His dedication stood in stark contrast to the indolence of many Ming emperors.
Qianlong sought to balance the governance styles of his predecessors. He critiqued Kangxi’s leniency and Yongzheng’s harshness, advocating for a middle path. In 1736, he declared, “Governance must strike equilibrium; neither excess nor deficiency is tolerable.” This philosophy manifested in policies that suppressed factionalism while appeasing Han elites and commoners, fostering stability during the zenith of the “High Qing” golden age.
The Pacification of the Western Frontier
The Qing dynasty’s expansion into Xinjiang was a defining achievement of Qianlong’s reign. The Zunghar Khanate, a Mongol confederation, had long resisted Qing authority. After decades of conflict, internal strife following Galdan Tseren’s death in 1745 weakened the Zunghars. Qianlong seized the opportunity, launching campaigns in 1755 that culminated in the capture of Ili and the defeat of the rebel leader Amursana. The Qing established the Ili Military Governorship, integrating the region into the empire.
This victory, though brutal—resulting in significant depopulation—secured China’s northwest against Russian and British encroachment. As Lenin later noted, such wars, despite their devastation, could be historically progressive by consolidating nations and thwarting colonialism.
The Conquest of the Muslim Regions
South of the Tianshan Mountains, the Altishahr (Tarim Basin) was home to Uyghur Muslims under the influence of the Khoja brothers, Burhanuddin and Khoja Jahan. Initially freed from Zunghar rule by Qing forces, the brothers later rebelled, seeking independence. Qianlong’s armies, exploiting local discontent with Khoja tyranny, crushed the revolt by 1759. The Qing then appointed resident officials in Kashgar and Yarkand, tightening control over Xinjiang while retaining local administrators (begs) under imperial oversight.
The Return of the Torghuts
In a dramatic episode of loyalty to the homeland, the Torghut Mongols—exiled in the Volga region since the 1600s—fled Russian conscription and persecution. Led by Ubashi Khan, they embarked on an arduous 8-month trek in 1771, losing thousands but reaching Qing territory. Qianlong welcomed them with relief supplies and granted Ubashi the title “Brave Khan.” Russia’s subsequent demands for their return were firmly rebuffed, showcasing Qing resolve in defending its sovereignty.
The Sichuan Frontier: Subduing the Jinchuan Tribes
The Jinchuan campaigns (1747–1776) against Tibetan chieftains in Sichuan tested Qing military logistics. The rebels’ stone fortresses (tusi) prolonged the conflict, costing the treasury 70 million taels of silver. Victory led to direct administration under Sichuan, replacing tribal leaders with Qing magistrates—a step toward modernization in the remote highlands.
Tibet: From Rebellion to Reform
Tibet’s turbulent politics saw repeated rebellions, notably by Gyurme Namgyal in 1750. The Qing responded by abolishing the Tibetan kingship and creating the Kashag council under the Dalai Lama. The 1791 Gurkha invasion prompted further reforms: the 29-Article Ordinance for Better Governance of Tibet (1793) elevated the ambans’ authority, mandated golden urn selections for reincarnations, and standardized currency, cementing Beijing’s oversight.
The Legacy of Qianlong’s Expansion
By Qianlong’s reign, Qing borders stretched from the Amur to the Pamirs, and from Siberia to Hainan. Unlike earlier dynasties’ loose tributary systems, the Qing implemented direct rule—garrisons, censuses, and infrastructure—forging a template for modern China’s territorial integrity. This era’s administrative innovations, from Xinjiang’s military colonies to Tibet’s bureaucratic integration, remain foundational to China’s geopolitical identity today.
In sum, Qianlong’s reign was not merely a peak of imperial splendor but a crucible for the unified, multi-ethnic state that endures in contemporary China. His policies balanced force with diplomacy, leaving an indelible mark on Asia’s historical landscape.