The Fall of the Ming and Qing Consolidation
The mid-17th century witnessed one of China’s most turbulent transitions as the Ming dynasty collapsed under internal rebellion and external invasion. When the Manchu forces crossed the Great Wall in 1644, they initially implemented policies aimed at winning popular support and stabilizing their newly conquered territories. The regent Dorgon, acting on behalf of the young Shunzhi Emperor, pursued a dual strategy of conciliation and coercion that would shape the course of Chinese history.
These early Qing rulers maintained much of the Ming bureaucratic structure while introducing Manchu customs, most controversially the queue hairstyle that became a symbol of submission. The policy of land enclosure, where vast territories were confiscated for Manchu bannermen, and the practice of enslaving captives created widespread resentment among the Han population. What began as a dynastic transition quickly escalated into a prolonged conflict where ethnic tensions overshadowed class divisions.
Northern Resistance: The First Wave of Defiance
The northern provinces became the initial battleground for anti-Qing resistance, with uprisings erupting as early as 1644. Peasant revolts in Hebei, Shandong, and Tianjin regions demonstrated the immediate backlash against Qing policies. The Sanhe County rebellion exemplified this resistance, where displaced farmers whose lands had been seized by Manchu bannermen took up arms against their new rulers.
Shandong province emerged as a particularly active center of resistance. The famous Manjiadong rebels, operating from their extensive cave networks, and the Yulin Army in the wooded regions of western Shandong both mounted significant challenges to Qing authority. These groups, some numbering in the tens of thousands, employed guerrilla tactics and leveraged their knowledge of local terrain to resist superior Qing forces for years.
The Yulin Army’s resistance proved especially formidable. Based in the dense elm forests of Puzhou and Fan County, their network of tunnels and mobile tactics allowed them to control hundreds of square miles. At their peak in 1648, they established a short-lived rebel government under the Tianzheng era name before being ultimately defeated by flooding tactics and overwhelming Qing military pressure.
The Southern Ming and Yangtze Resistance
As the Qing forces advanced southward, remnants of the Ming imperial family established competing regimes. The Hongguang Emperor’s court in Nanjing, plagued by factionalism and corruption, failed to mount an effective defense despite controlling significant resources. The notorious Ma Shiying and Ruan Dacheng dominated the court, sidelining competent officials like Shi Kefa who advocated stronger resistance.
The fall of Yangzhou in 1645 marked a turning point. Shi Kefa’s heroic last stand and the subsequent massacre that reportedly claimed 80,000 lives demonstrated both the determination of Ming loyalists and the brutal tactics employed by the Qing to suppress resistance. The imposition of the queue order in conquered territories further inflamed tensions, triggering massive uprisings in Jiangnan cities.
The sieges of Jiangyin and Jiading became legendary displays of Han resistance. In Jiangyin, a mixed force of scholars, merchants, and commoners held out for 81 days against overwhelming odds under the leadership of Yan Yingyuan and Chen Mingyu. The Jiading resistance, similarly composed of local gentry and townspeople, endured three separate massacres as they repeatedly rose up against Qing occupation forces.
The Coastal Resistance: Zhejiang and Fujian
With the collapse of the Nanjing regime, Ming loyalists established two competing courts: the Lu regime in Zhejiang under Zhu Yihai and the Longwu regime in Fujian under Zhu Yujian. Despite controlling extensive territories, these regimes suffered from internal divisions and failed to coordinate their efforts against the common Qing threat.
The Zhejiang resistance found strongholds in the Siming Mountains, where Wang Yi and other leaders organized effective guerrilla forces. In Fujian, the powerful Zheng Zhilong initially supported the Longwu Emperor but ultimately betrayed the cause, leaving his son Zheng Chenggong (Koxinga) to continue the resistance from coastal bases.
The scholar-official Huang Daozhou exemplified the dedication of Ming loyalists. With minimal support from the Fujian court, he raised a volunteer army and marched northward against impossible odds, ultimately being captured and executed. His martyrdom inspired continued resistance throughout the southeast.
The Peasant Armies’ Pivotal Role
The remnants of Li Zicheng’s Shun army and Zhang Xianzhong’s Xi army transformed from rebel forces into the most determined anti-Qing fighters. After Li’s death in 1645, his generals like Li Guo and Hao Yaoqi joined forces with Southern Ming commanders He Tengjiao and Chu Yinxi to create the Zhongzhen Battalion, a formidable anti-Qing force in Huguang province.
Zhang Xianzhong’s successors, particularly Li Dingguo and Sun Kewang, carried the resistance into southwestern China. Li Dingguo’s brilliant campaigns in 1652, which defeated and killed two Qing princes (Kong Youde and Nikan), represented the high point of anti-Qing military success. His forces nearly turned the tide before internal conflicts with Sun Kewang weakened their position.
The Yongli Emperor’s court in Guangxi, supported by these peasant-turned-loyalist forces, became the longest-lasting Ming resistance government. Despite constant Qing pressure and internal divisions, this regime maintained the Ming imperial tradition until its final collapse in 1662.
Zheng Chenggong and the Maritime Resistance
The son of pirate-turned-Ming-admiral Zheng Zhilong, Zheng Chenggong created the most enduring anti-Qing base along China’s southeastern coast. From his strongholds in Xiamen and Jinmen, he built a formidable maritime empire that combined military power with extensive trade networks.
Zheng’s 1659 campaign up the Yangtze River, coordinated with Zhang Huangyan’s forces, brought him to the gates of Nanjing. The subsequent failure of this ambitious campaign demonstrated both the strengths and limitations of coastal resistance. His turn toward Taiwan in 1661 represented both a strategic retreat and a new phase in anti-Qing resistance.
The successful expulsion of Dutch colonists from Taiwan provided the Ming loyalists with a secure base, but also marked their gradual transformation from a restoration movement to a regional power. Zheng’s regime in Taiwan maintained Ming traditions and institutions until its eventual surrender to the Qing in 1683.
Legacy of Resistance
The anti-Qing resistance movements of the mid-17th century represented more than simple dynastic loyalty. They embodied cultural defense, regional identity, and popular opposition to foreign domination. The varying social composition of these movements—from scholar-officials to peasant rebels to maritime traders—demonstrated how Qing policies alienated nearly all segments of Chinese society.
While ultimately unsuccessful in preventing Qing consolidation, these resistance efforts shaped the character of Manchu rule. The prolonged fighting forced the Qing to modify some of their most unpopular policies and to incorporate more Han Chinese into their administration. The memory of resistance, particularly events like the Yangzhou massacre and the Jiangyin siege, became powerful symbols in later anti-Manchu movements.
The resistance also demonstrated the remarkable adaptability of Chinese political and military institutions. From the cave networks of Shandong to the island redoubts of Taiwan, Ming loyalists developed innovative strategies that prolonged their struggle against superior forces. This period of resistance remains a testament to the complexity of China’s dynastic transitions and the enduring tension between conquest and cultural identity.