The Rise and Fall of British and French Empires in the Arab World

The Origins of British Influence in the Persian Gulf

The British Empire had already been active in the Arab world for a century by the time postwar settlements granted Britain mandates over Iraq, Transjordan, and Palestine. In the early 19th century, the British East India Company became entangled in the treacherous waters of the Persian Gulf to counter the growing threat posed by maritime tribes—now part of the United Arab Emirates—to merchant shipping. The Persian Gulf was a crucial land and sea link between the Eastern Mediterranean and India, prompting the British to suppress piracy in the region.

The British referred to the area as the “Pirate Coast,” and in subduing it, they transformed the Persian Gulf into a British-controlled sphere. Records of British dissatisfaction with the Qawasim tribal confederation in Sharjah and Ras al-Khaimah date back to 1797, when the East India Company blamed the Qawasim for a series of attacks on British, Ottoman, and Arab fleets.

British Military Expeditions and the “Pax Britannica”

In September 1809, the East India Company dispatched a punitive expedition of 16 warships to the Pirate Coast. Following orders, the fleet attacked Ras al-Khaimah, burning Qawasim raiders’ ships and warehouses. Between November 1809 and January 1810, the British fleet severely damaged Ras al-Khaimah and four other Qawasim ports, destroying 60 large vessels and 43 smaller boats while recovering allegedly stolen goods worth £20,000 before departing. However, lacking a formal agreement with the Qawasim, British shipping in the Persian Gulf remained vulnerable to further attacks.

Within five years of the first expedition, the Qawasim had rebuilt their fleet and resumed maritime raids. A second British expedition set sail from Bombay in 1819 to suppress them. With double the force concentrated on Ras al-Khaimah, this campaign not only captured and burned most of the Qawasim fleet but also achieved what the first expedition had failed to do—a political settlement.

On January 8, 1820, leaders from Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Ajman, Umm al-Quwain, Bahrain, and the Qawasim rulers of Sharjah and Ras al-Khaimah signed a general treaty guaranteeing a complete and permanent cessation of attacks on British ships and accepting a common maritime code. In return, they were permitted to trade in all British-controlled ports across the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean. By granting these maritime sheikhdoms access to British-administered ports, the treaty provided economic incentives for maintaining peace at sea and along the coasts.

This agreement marked the beginning of the 19th-century “Pax Britannica,” during which the Persian Gulf became an unmistakable British protectorate. Through a series of bilateral agreements with independent sheikhdoms, the British deepened their control over the region.

The Strategic Shift: From Trade to Oil

By the 20th century, Britain’s growing dependence on oil further elevated the Persian Gulf’s importance. The Royal Navy’s transition from coal to oil in 1907 gave the Arab sheikhdoms a new strategic role in the British Empire. Winston Churchill, then First Lord of the Admiralty, emphasized Britain’s reliance on oil in a 1913 address to Parliament, noting that the navy had commissioned over 100 oil-powered ships.

The discovery of significant oil reserves in Iran in 1908 fueled British interest in securing exclusive oil exploration rights in the Gulf sheikhdoms. By the eve of World War I, oil exploration, commercial interests, and imperial communications had made the Persian Gulf a region of special strategic significance to the British Empire.

The Rise of Ibn Saud and British Alliances

In 1913, a new Arab power emerged in the Persian Gulf under British influence—the House of Saud. Ibn Saud, a charismatic leader, began consolidating his control over central Arabia, eventually expanding his territory to the Persian Gulf region. By 1913, he had conquered the eastern province of Al-Hasa from the Ottomans, positioning himself as a dominant force among the Arab Gulf states.

Recognizing his growing influence, Britain signed an agreement with Ibn Saud in late 1915, acknowledging his leadership and placing central and eastern Arabia under British protection. In return, the Saudis pledged not to enter treaties with external powers or sell territory without British consent and to refrain from aggression against other Gulf states.

The Clash with Hashemite Ambitions

Ibn Saud’s ambitions increasingly clashed with those of Sharif Hussein of Mecca, another British ally who sought to rule Arabia. The rivalry between the Saudis and Hashemites escalated into open conflict in 1918, with Ibn Saud gaining the upper hand. By 1924, Ibn Saud’s forces had conquered the Hejaz, including the holy cities of Mecca and Medina, consolidating his rule over most of the Arabian Peninsula.

In 1927, Britain recognized Ibn Saud’s expanded dominion, signing a new treaty that acknowledged his full independence and sovereignty, free from the restrictions imposed on other Gulf rulers. By 1932, he renamed his kingdom Saudi Arabia, establishing a monarchy that maintained independence without British interference.

The Legacy of British and French Imperialism

The interwar period saw both the British and French empires struggling to maintain control over their Arab territories. While Britain managed to secure strategic interests through treaties and indirect rule, France faced significant resistance in Syria and Lebanon. The failure of imperial policies in the Arab world foreshadowed the eventual decline of European dominance in the region.

By World War II, nationalist movements across the Arab world had gained momentum, challenging colonial rule and demanding independence. The British and French empires, once seemingly invincible, found themselves increasingly unable to suppress these aspirations. The post-war era would witness the formal end of European mandates, as Arab nations emerged as sovereign states, reshaping the political landscape of the Middle East.

Conclusion

The British and French empires left a complex legacy in the Arab world. While their influence shaped modern state structures, their policies also sowed divisions that persist to this day. The rise of nationalist movements and the eventual collapse of colonial rule marked the beginning of a new era—one defined by independence, sovereignty, and the enduring struggle for self-determination.