The Collapse of Liberal Civilization in the Early 20th Century
The early 20th century witnessed a shocking disintegration of liberal democratic values that had seemed unshakable during the 19th century. Across Europe’s “advanced” nations, constitutional government, free elections, rule of law, and fundamental rights like freedom of speech and assembly had become established norms. Even Russia and the Ottoman Empire, Europe’s last autocracies, had begun moving toward constitutionalism by 1914. Only three forces challenged this liberal consensus: traditional institutions like the Catholic Church, small groups of radical intellectuals, and the emerging working-class movements.
Paradoxically, even socialist movements largely embraced Enlightenment values of reason, science, and progress. The German Social Democrats’ May Day medals featured both Marx and the Statue of Liberty, demonstrating their commitment to political democracy alongside economic transformation. No one could have imagined that within decades, regimes would emerge that would completely dismantle these civilizational achievements.
The Global Retreat of Democracy Between the Wars
The interwar period saw a dramatic reversal in democratic governance. While World War I initially expanded democracy (except in Soviet Russia), the 1920s and 1930s witnessed its rapid decline. By 1938, the number of constitutional democracies with elected governments had fallen from about 35 to just 17. By 1944, only 12 of 64 independent nations maintained democratic constitutions.
This democratic collapse occurred across continents:
– Europe: Only Britain, Finland, Ireland, Sweden and Switzerland maintained uninterrupted democracy
– Americas: Just Canada, Colombia, Costa Rica, the U.S. and Uruguay preserved constitutional government
– Asia/Africa: Only Australia, New Zealand and (nominally) South Africa remained democratic
The threat came overwhelmingly from the right. Traditional conservative forces, fearing social revolution and working-class power, increasingly turned to authoritarian solutions. The rise of fascism in Italy and Germany provided both inspiration and practical models for this antidemocratic shift.
Understanding the Fascist Phenomenon
Fascism defies rational analysis in its extremity. As historian Ian Kershaw observed, Nazi Germany – one of Europe’s most culturally and economically advanced nations – committed atrocities of unprecedented scale, systematically murdering millions in the Holocaust. This contradiction between civilization and barbarism remains history’s great paradox.
Fascism combined several key elements:
1. Extreme nationalism and racial ideology
2. Rejection of liberal democracy and Enlightenment values
3. Cult of violent action and youth (“To die is nothing… To kill, that is everything”)
4. Revolutionary rhetoric masking fundamentally counter-revolutionary aims
5. Mass mobilization through spectacle and ritual
Unlike traditional conservatism, fascism sought not to preserve old hierarchies but to create new ones based on pseudoscientific racial theories and charismatic leadership. It appealed particularly to middle and lower-middle classes threatened by economic crisis and social change.
The Social Bases of Fascist Support
Fascism found its strongest support among:
– War veterans disillusioned with civilian life
– Middle-class groups economically threatened by inflation and depression
– Youth, especially students
– Those displaced by modernization and globalization
In Germany, Nazi electoral support surged from 2.5% in 1928 to 37% by 1932, drawing mainly from middle-class voters abandoned by traditional parties. While fascist movements sometimes gained working-class support (especially where leftist parties were banned), their core constituency remained the petite bourgeoisie.
The Path to Power: How Fascists Took Control
Fascist movements generally came to power not through revolution but through establishment conservatives seeking allies against the left:
– In Italy, liberals invited Mussolini to form a government in 1922
– In Germany, traditional elites brought Hitler into government in 1933
Once in power, fascists quickly dismantled democratic institutions, establishing one-party states under supreme leaders (Duce, Führer). Their “revolution” was largely symbolic – while using radical rhetoric, they preserved capitalist economies while suppressing labor movements.
The International Appeal of Fascism
Fascism’s international influence stemmed primarily from German and Italian power rather than ideological appeal. Movements inspired by fascism emerged across Europe and Latin America, though with significant local variations:
– In Hungary and Romania, fascist parties gained substantial votes
– In Spain, Franco incorporated fascist elements while maintaining traditional conservatism
– In Latin America, leaders like Brazil’s Vargas borrowed fascist styles while pursuing different social policies
However, outside Europe, fascism’s impact was limited. Japan’s militarist regime shared some fascist characteristics but lacked its mass mobilization aspects. In the U.S., right-wing movements remained distinct from European fascism.
Why Democracy Failed: The Preconditions for Fascist Success
Several factors created fertile ground for fascism’s rise:
1. Weak democratic traditions in new postwar states
2. Deep social divisions exacerbated by economic crisis
3. Fear of communist revolution among elites
4. National humiliations (especially for Germany after Versailles)
5. The Great Depression’s devastating economic impact
Where democratic institutions were robust (Britain, Scandinavia), they survived. Where they were new or fragile (Germany, Italy, Eastern Europe), they collapsed under these pressures.
The Legacy of Fascism
Fascism’s defeat in 1945 seemed to mark its end as a historical force. Yet its emergence revealed vulnerabilities in democratic systems that remain relevant:
– The appeal of authoritarian solutions during crises
– The power of nationalism and identity politics
– The fragility of democratic norms under stress
– The potential for modern societies to embrace barbarism
The fascist era stands as civilization’s darkest warning – that progress is never irreversible, and that the most advanced societies can succumb to the worst atrocities when democratic values are abandoned. As we confront new challenges in the 21st century, this lesson remains essential.