The Seeds of Reform: Intellectual Ferment in Late 19th Century China

The 1860s marked the beginning of reformist thought in Qing China, as intellectuals grappled with the empire’s declining fortunes. Early works like Xiaobinlu Kangyi (Protests from the Xiaobin Studio) and Shengshi Weiyan (Warnings to a Prosperous Age) articulated concerns about China’s weakness, but remained theoretical discussions. By the 1880s, these ideas gained momentum among bourgeois reformists who sought concrete political action.

The catalyst came in 1888 when Kang Youwei, the leading reformist figure, submitted his first memorial to the throne following China’s humiliating defeat in the Sino-French War (1884-1885). His petition outlined urgent political reforms for “internal governance improvement,” but conservative forces blocked its delivery to Emperor Guangxu, mocking the proposals instead. Despite this setback, Kang established connections with reform-minded officials, planting seeds for future change.

The Shock of Defeat: Japan’s Victory and the Public Outcry

China’s disastrous defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) created a national crisis. The Treaty of Shimonoseki’s harsh terms—including ceding Taiwan and Liaodong—sparked unprecedented public anger. Scholar Zou Zengyou’s poem He Yue Ding Yi Gankai (Lament on the Peace Treaty) captured the mood:

“The generals willingly cede territory, the marshals actually throw down their arms,”
“From beginning to end not a single strategy—they seek only wealth and compromise.”

Such sentiments circulated widely, later compiled in the Putian Zhongfen Ji (Collection of Universal Loyalty and Indignation), documenting the national fury.

The Scholar’s Protest: Kang Youwei’s Public Petition of 1895

In 1895, during the national civil service examinations, Kang Youwei seized the moment. Gathering 603 provincial graduates (the exact number remains debated), he organized the famous “Public Memorial” (公车上书). This collective petition proposed:

Three emergency measures:
– An imperial proclamation to inspire national morale
– Relocating the capital to secure the nation’s foundation
– Military reforms to strengthen defenses

Six national enrichment policies:
– Currency reform
– Railway construction
– Machine manufacturing
– Steamship development
– Mining operations
– Postal system modernization

Though the petition failed to reach the throne, it established the reform agenda. Subsequent memorials in May and June 1895 elaborated on these ideas, emphasizing military modernization through:
– Eliminating redundant troops
– Organizing militia forces
– Training Manchu-Mongolian banners
– Adopting new weapons systems
– Establishing military academies
– Expanding naval power

Emperor Guangxu, deeply moved by the third memorial, ordered copies sent to Empress Dowager Cixi, his own archives, and provincial governors—marking his decisive turn toward reform.

The Reform Movement Gains Momentum

While petitioning, Kang actively built reform institutions:
– Founded the “Strong Study Society” (强学会) as a political organization
– Launched newspapers like Wanguo Gongbao and Zhongwai Jiwen to promote reform ideas

By 1898, pressure mounted. In April-June, Kang and allies submitted multiple memorials urging immediate action. On June 11, Guangxu issued the “Edict to Clarify the National Policy,” launching the Hundred Days’ Reform.

The Power Struggle: Reformers vs Conservatives

Two factions emerged:
The Emperor’s Party (帝党): Supported reforms, led by Guangxu and officials like Weng Tonghe
The Empress’s Party (后党): Opposed changes, led by Cixi and Ronglu

Four key confrontations occurred during the reforms:
1. June 15: Conservative Ronglu gained control of Beijing’s military forces
2. June 20: Reformers accused conservative Xu Yingkui of obstructing reforms
3. July 7: Conservative Wen Ti attacked Kang Youwei but was dismissed
4. September 4: Six conservative ministers were purged

Despite these victories, conservatives secretly plotted. On September 21, Cixi staged a coup, imprisoning Guangxu and executing reformers like Tan Sitong. The 103-day reform movement ended in bloodshed.

Yuan Shikai’s Betrayal and the Aftermath

Yuan Shikai, commander of the Newly Created Army, played both sides. Initially joining reform societies, he secretly informed conservatives about the reformers’ plans to stage a coup against Cixi. His betrayal proved decisive.

Rewarded with promotions, Yuan expanded his military power. By 1899, he commanded the elite “Wuwei Right Army” and brutally suppressed the Boxer Rebellion in Shandong. When the Eight-Nation Alliance invaded in 1900, Yuan preserved his forces while other imperial armies were destroyed—positioning himself as China’s strongest military leader.

Legacy: The Paradox of Failed Reform

Though the 1898 reforms collapsed, they:
– Introduced modernization concepts that later influenced the 1911 Revolution
– Exposed Qing dynasty weaknesses, accelerating its decline
– Demonstrated the power of organized intellectual movements

Yuan’s rise marked the beginning of warlordism, showing how military power would dominate China’s transition to modernity. The movement’s ideals—constitutional monarchy, modern education, and industrial development—would resurface repeatedly in China’s long road to reform.