The Four Tribes of the Oirat Confederation

In the late 16th and early 17th centuries, the Oirat Mongols (also known as the Eleuths) formed a powerful confederation comprising four major tribes: the Khoshut, Dzungar, Dörbet, and Torghut. Each tribe maintained distinct territories and leadership lineages while participating in a loose political alliance.

The Khoshut tribe, led by descendants of Genghis Khan’s younger brother Khabutu Khasar, held the most prestigious position within the confederation. Their leaders bore the Borjigin surname and traditionally served as the confederation’s nominal heads. The Dzungar and Dörbet tribes shared common ancestry traced back to a Yuan dynasty minister named Bokhan, while the Torghut claimed descent from Wang Khan of the ancient Kerait tribe.

These nomadic peoples followed traditional pastoral lifestyles, moving seasonally across vast territories:
– Khoshut: Grazing lands around Urumqi
– Dzungar: Ili River valley
– Dörbet: Both banks of the Irtysh River
– Torghut: Yarkand region (modern Tacheng, northwest Xinjiang)

The confederation maintained a flexible political structure called the “Churgan” assembly, which elected a nominal leader known as the “Darga” or “Oirat Khan.” Despite this alliance, each tribe maintained substantial autonomy, with conflicts frequently arising over grazing rights and political influence.

The Ascendancy of the Dzungar Khanate

The early 17th century witnessed the dramatic rise of the Dzungar tribe under ambitious leaders who sought to dominate the Oirat confederation. Khara Khula (d. 1634) initiated this expansionist policy, aggressively consolidating power at the expense of weaker neighbors. His son Baatur Khong Taiji (r. 1634-1653) proved even more formidable, capitalizing on the migration of rival tribes to establish Dzungar hegemony.

Several pivotal events marked this period:
– 1629: Torghut leader Kho Orluk led 50,000 households westward to the Volga River region to escape Dzungar pressure
– 1637: Khoshut leader Gushi Khan migrated eastward into Qinghai
– 1640: Ochirtu Khan led his Khoshut followers into the Alxa region

These migrations left the Dzungars and Dörbets as the dominant powers in the Altai and Ili River regions. Baatur Khong Taiji skillfully exploited this situation, absorbing remaining tribal fragments and consolidating control over western Mongolia.

The 1640 congress at Tarbagatai represented a watershed moment, bringing together 44 Mongol nobles from both Oirat and Khalkha factions. This assembly produced the groundbreaking “Mongol-Oirat Code,” establishing unprecedented unity among eastern and western Mongol groups while formalizing Dzungar leadership.

Cultural and Political Expansion into Tibet

Following the 1640 congress, the Khoshut launched a dramatic intervention in Tibetan affairs. Gushi Khan, now styled as “Tenzing Chökyi Gushi Khan” (Dharma King, Protector of Religion), led his forces into Tibet in 1641 at the invitation of the Fifth Dalai Lama. This military campaign:

1. Overthrew the Tsangpa dynasty rulers
2. Established Gelugpa (Yellow Hat) supremacy
3. Created a Khoshut protectorate over Tibet

Gushi Khan stationed troops at Dam (modern Damxung), maintaining strategic control while appointing Sonam Rabten as the first Desi (regent) to handle daily governance. This arrangement created a unique dual system of religious and secular authority that would shape Tibetan politics for generations.

Relations with Ming and Qing Dynasties

During this period of Oirat expansion, China underwent the tumultuous Ming-Qing transition. Remarkably, Oirat leaders maintained formal ties with both dynasties:

– The Torghut carefully preserved their Ming-era jade seal of appointment (bestowed in 1410) even after migrating to the Volga region
– Russian envoy Tomilko reported in 1616 that Oirat leaders still paid tribute to the “Great Ming Khan”
– Gushi Khan established tributary relations with the Qing in 1637, seven years before the Manchu conquest of Beijing
– The Shunzhi Emperor formally recognized Gushi Khan’s leadership in 1646, granting him the title “Obeying Culture and Practicing Righteousness, Wise and Intelligent Gushi Khan”

These diplomatic maneuvers demonstrate the Oirat’s sophisticated statecraft, maintaining legitimacy through formal relations with Chinese dynasties while expanding their own territories.

The Turbulent Reign of Galdan Boshugtu Khan

The Dzungar Khanate reached its zenith under Galdan Boshugtu Khan (1644-1697), whose dramatic rise and fall would reshape Central Asia. After seizing power in 1671 by eliminating rival claimants, Galdan pursued aggressive expansion:

1. Western Expansion (1677-1678)
– Conquered the Khoshut in western Gansu
– Subjugated the Tarim Basin oasis cities

2. Diplomatic Maneuvering
– Maintained tributary relations with the Qing
– Cultivated ties with the Dalai Lama’s regent
– Received the title “Boshogtu Khan” from Tibet in 1679

3. Eastern Campaigns (1688-1690)
– Invaded Khalkha Mongolia
– Defeated Tüsheet Khan at Lake Olgoi
– Pushed Khalkha refugees into Qing territory

Galdan’s growing ambition led to direct confrontation with the Qing Empire. The Kangxi Emperor, recognizing the threat to China’s northern frontiers, personally led campaigns against the Dzungar leader.

The Qing-Dzungar Wars

The Kangxi Emperor’s three expeditions against Galdan (1690-1697) marked a turning point in Central Asian history:

1. Battle of Ulan Butung (1690)
– Qing forces employed artillery against Dzungar “camel fort” defenses
– Galdan retreated under cover of darkness
– Strategic victory established Qing dominance

2. Dolonnor Assembly (1691)
– Kangxi mediated Khalkha tribal disputes
– Organized Khalkha into 37 banners
– Solidified Qing administrative control

3. Battle of Jao Modo (1696)
– Decisive Qing victory destroyed Dzungar field army
– Galdan reduced to a fugitive with few followers
– Marked effective end of Dzungar eastern expansion

Galdan’s death in 1697 (possibly by suicide) concluded this dramatic chapter. The Qing victory had profound consequences:
– Secured Outer Mongolia as Qing protectorate
– Checked Russian southward expansion
– Established Qing military presence in Central Asia

The Tibetan Campaigns and Final Collapse

The Dzungar Khanate experienced a brief resurgence under Tsewang Rabtan (r. 1697-1727), who:
– Invaded Tibet in 1717, killing Lhazang Khan
– Controlled Tibet briefly before Qing intervention
– Inspired the 1723 Kokonor (Qinghai) rebellion

The Yongzheng Emperor’s decisive response:
1. 1720: Qing armies restored the Dalai Lama
2. 1724: Crushed the Qinghai rebellion
3. Established permanent Qing administration in Tibet

These events marked the final eclipse of Oirat power, paving the way for complete Qing domination of Central Asia by the mid-18th century.

Legacy and Historical Significance

The Oirat confederation’s three-century saga represents a crucial chapter in Eurasian history:

1. Geopolitical Impact
– Last major nomadic challenge to settled empires
– Accelerated Qing expansion into Central Asia
– Shaped modern boundaries of China, Mongolia, and Russia

2. Cultural Contributions
– Spread of Tibetan Buddhism among Mongols
– Development of the Clear Script (Todo Bichig)
– Unique synthesis of nomadic and settled traditions

3. Modern Relevance
– Torghut return from Russia (1771) remains potent symbol
– Xinjiang’s ethnic composition reflects Dzungar legacy
– Ongoing scholarly reassessment of Oirat statecraft

The Oirat experience demonstrates the complex interplay between nomadic and sedentary civilizations, offering valuable insights into the dynamics of empire-building on the Eurasian steppe frontier. Their story continues to resonate in contemporary discussions of ethnicity, sovereignty, and cultural identity across Central Asia.