The Turbulent Era of Late Yuan Rebellions

The mid-14th century was a time of chaos and opportunity in China. The Yuan Dynasty, established by the Mongol conquerors, was crumbling under corruption, economic mismanagement, and widespread discontent. Heavy taxes, forced labor, and ethnic discrimination against the Han Chinese fueled resentment. Against this backdrop, two remarkable but very different men emerged as leaders of rebellions that would shape the course of history: Zhang Shicheng, the daring salt smuggler, and Chen Youliang, the ruthless strategist.

Zhang Shicheng: The Salt Smuggler Turned King

Born in 1321 in Taizhou, Zhang Shicheng belonged to a profession that was both lucrative and deadly—salt smuggling. In imperial China, salt was a state monopoly, and private trade was punishable by death. Yet the profits were irresistible, and Zhang became a wealthy underground merchant. His experiences forged a fearless character and deep hatred for the Yuan government, which had executed many of his associates.

In 1353, Zhang launched his rebellion, capturing Taizhou, Xinghua, and establishing his capital at Gaoyou. Declaring himself the “King of Cheng” of the Great Zhou dynasty, he adopted the reign name “Tianyou” (Heaven’s Protection)—a name that would prove prophetic.

The Siege of Gaoyou: A Defining Moment

Zhang’s greatest test came when the Yuan dispatched a massive army of nearly a million soldiers, led by the renowned general Toqto’a, to crush his rebellion. Outnumbered and besieged, Zhang faced a grim choice: surrender and face execution, or fight to the death. His defiant words—”Where else can we go?”—galvanized his men.

For three months, Gaoyou held out against relentless assaults, including bombardments from early gunpowder weapons. Zhang and his brothers stood on the front lines, embodying the desperate courage of their forces. Miraculously, political infighting in the Yuan court led to Toqto’a’s recall, saving Zhang’s rebellion from annihilation.

The Limits of Ambition

Victory at Gaoyou made Zhang a legend. He expanded his territory across Jiangsu and Zhejiang, becoming the wealthiest warlord of the era. Yet success softened him. Unlike other rebel leaders, Zhang avoided further conquests, content to enjoy his riches. He governed benevolently, reducing taxes and earning local admiration, but his lack of ambition proved fatal. As his rival Zhu Yuanzhang (the future Ming founder) observed, Zhang was “small-minded”—a good man, but no match for the ruthless struggles ahead.

Chen Youliang: The Ambitious Schemer

While Zhang Shicheng represented stubborn resilience, Chen Youliang embodied cunning and ambition. Born in 1320 to a poor fishing family in Hubei, Chen endured lifelong discrimination due to his low social status. Determined to rise, he joined the Red Turban Rebellion under Xu Shouhui, a charismatic cloth merchant turned emperor of the short-lived “Tianwan” regime.

Chen’s intelligence and ruthlessness quickly propelled him through the ranks. When Xu’s chancellor, Ni Wenjun, attempted a coup and fled to Chen for refuge, Chen betrayed him without hesitation, sending Ni’s head to Xu as a pledge of loyalty. This act foreshadowed Chen’s later treachery.

The Path to Power

After eliminating Ni, Chen turned on his benefactor Xu Shouhui, assassinating him in 1360 and declaring himself emperor of the “Han” dynasty. Unlike Zhang Shicheng, Chen was a strategic mastermind, commanding formidable generals like Zou Punsheng and Fu Youde. His navy dominated the Yangtze, and his ambition knew no bounds.

Yet Chen’s brutality alienated potential allies. His infamous massacre of defectors at Lake Poyang and his willingness to kill former comrades marked him as a tyrant. In 1363, his colossal fleet clashed with Zhu Yuanzhang’s forces at the Battle of Lake Poyang—the largest naval engagement in history at the time. Despite superior numbers, Chen’s rigid tactics led to disaster. Trapped and desperate, he died in a final arrow barrage, his body lost to the waters.

Legacy and Historical Reflections

Zhang Shicheng and Chen Youliang represented two extremes of late Yuan rebellion: one a principled but limited leader, the other a brilliant but morally bankrupt conqueror. Their struggles against the Yuan and each other paved the way for Zhu Yuanzhang’s Ming Dynasty.

Zhang’s legacy lies in his populist rule, remembered fondly in Jiangnan folklore. Chen, though reviled for his cruelty, demonstrated the perils of unchecked ambition. Together, their stories illuminate the chaotic transition from Mongol rule to a new Chinese empire—a reminder that in times of upheaval, character determines destiny.

In the end, neither could outlast the shrewd peasant who would unite China: Zhu Yuanzhang. But for a brief, fiery moment, they illuminated an age of rebellion, proving that even in collapse, history favors the bold.