The Seeds of Arab Nationalism Under Ottoman Rule
For nearly four centuries, the Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire had been integral parts of a vast imperial system. By the early 20th century, however, a new political consciousness was emerging among Arab intellectuals, military officers, and religious leaders. The very idea of an independent Arab state had once seemed unimaginable—yet now, visionaries began debating competing visions of self-determination.
Some Arab nationalists dreamed of a unified kingdom centered on the Arabian Peninsula, while others advocated for regional states in Greater Syria or Iraq. These early activists operated on the fringes of society, facing suppression from Ottoman authorities determined to maintain imperial unity. Many were forced into exile—some to Paris, where they absorbed European nationalist ideas, others to Cairo, where Islamic reformers and anti-British secular nationalists shaped their thinking.
The Young Turk Revolution and Arab Disillusionment
The 1908 Young Turk Revolution initially raised hopes among Ottoman Arabs. The revolutionaries, who forced Sultan Abdulhamid II to restore the 1876 constitution, were initially seen as potential liberators. But these hopes soon faded as the Young Turks pursued aggressive centralization policies.
Ottoman authorities imposed Turkish as the sole language of administration and education in Arab provinces—a move that alienated Arab intellectuals for whom Arabic was central to their identity. Far from strengthening loyalty, these policies fueled a new wave of Arab nationalist secret societies. By the 1910s, Arab officers and thinkers were organizing underground networks, some even establishing contacts with European powers through consulates.
World War I: The Catalyst for Collapse
The Ottoman Empire’s entry into World War I in November 1914 proved disastrous. Already exhausted from the Balkan Wars (1912–1913), the empire now faced total mobilization. German-Ottoman strategists attempted to incite a global jihad against Britain, France, and Russia, but the call largely failed to resonate with Muslim populations.
Meanwhile, Ottoman authorities intensified repression against Arab nationalists. Jamal Pasha, one of the Young Turk triumvirate, earned the nickname “al-Saffah” (the Blood-Shedder) for his brutal suppression of dissent in Syria. Military tribunals in 1915–1916 executed dozens of Arab intellectuals in Beirut and Damascus, while famine—exacerbated by wartime requisitions and locust plagues—killed hundreds of thousands in Mount Lebanon and coastal Syria.
Despite early Ottoman victories at Gallipoli (1915) and Kut (1916), the empire’s military position collapsed by 1918. British forces, aided by the Arab Revolt (1916–1918), advanced through Mesopotamia and Palestine. On October 2, 1918, Arab forces under Emir Faisal entered Damascus—marking the symbolic end of four centuries of Ottoman rule in the Arab world.
Broken Promises: The Postwar Betrayal
Even before the war ended, Allied powers had secretly agreed to partition Ottoman territories. The 1916 Sykes-Picot Agreement between Britain and France contradicted earlier promises made to Arab leaders:
– The Hussein-McMahon Correspondence (1915–1916) pledged British support for an independent Arab kingdom under Sharif Hussein of Mecca.
– The Balfour Declaration (1917) promised a “national home for the Jewish people” in Palestine.
– Sykes-Picot carved the region into British and French spheres of influence.
At the 1919 Paris Peace Conference, Arab delegates—including Emir Faisal—presented their case for independence. The King-Crane Commission, sent to gauge local sentiment, found overwhelming Arab opposition to European mandates and Zionist ambitions. Its recommendations were ignored.
Revolt and Resistance: The Arab Response
Faced with European colonialism, Arab populations rose in protest:
– Syria (1920): Faisal was declared king of a short-lived Arab government in Damascus until French forces crushed his army at the Battle of Maysalun (July 24, 1920).
– Egypt (1919): Nationwide revolts against British rule led by Saad Zaghloul’s Wafd Party forced limited concessions but fell short of full independence.
– Iraq (1920): A mass uprising against British occupation united Sunni and Shia communities, though it was brutally suppressed.
The Legacy of a Fractured Independence
The postwar settlement imposed European mandates across the Arab world, creating borders that still define the modern Middle East. While Arab nationalism failed to achieve its grandest ambitions in the 1920s, the movement laid the groundwork for later struggles against colonialism. The era also saw the emergence of new political forces—from women’s activism in Egypt to cross-sectarian resistance in Iraq—that would shape the region’s future.
The collapse of Ottoman rule marked not just the end of an empire, but the beginning of a century-long Arab quest for self-determination—one that remains unresolved today.