The Rise of Russia and the Transformation of Eastern Europe in the Late 18th Century

The Geopolitical Landscape of Eastern Europe

The final quarter of the 18th century witnessed dramatic shifts in the geopolitical balance of Eastern and Central Europe. The primary driver of these changes was the expanding military power and influence of the Russian Empire. Following the decisive victory at the Battle of Poltava in 1709, Russia emerged as a dominant force in European politics. Alexander Bezborodko, a key architect of Russian foreign policy and descendant of a prominent Cossack family, famously remarked that by this era, “not a single cannon in Europe could fire without Russia’s permission.” The empire’s borders surged westward and southward, forcing the Ottoman Empire to retreat from the northern Black Sea coast and leading to the complete dissolution of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

The Role of Ukraine in Russia’s Expansion

Ukraine played a crucial yet paradoxical role in these transformations. Many Ukrainians, including Bezborodko, actively contributed to Russia’s imperial ambitions. However, these changes also dismantled Ukrainian autonomy. The Cossack Hetmanate, once a semi-independent entity within the Russian Empire, vanished from the map. The cultural boundaries between Eastern and Western Christianity, as well as between Christianity and Islam, shifted dramatically under Russian pressure. The empire suppressed the spread of Catholicism and the Uniate Church east of the Dnieper River while pushing further into the Black Sea steppes, opening new territories for colonization.

The Age of Enlightenment and Imperial Ambitions

The 18th century was not only an era of territorial expansion but also of Enlightenment ideals. Philosophers championed reason, individualism, and governance reform—yet these principles often coexisted with absolutism. Europe’s so-called “enlightened despots,” including Russia’s Catherine the Great, Prussia’ Frederick the Great, and Austria’s Joseph II, embraced rational governance while consolidating absolute power. These rulers also shared another common endeavor: the partitioning of Poland. Between 1772 and 1795, three successive partitions erased the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from the map. Even Voltaire celebrated the partitions as a triumph of “rational” governance over perceived Polish anarchy.

Catherine the Great and the End of Cossack Autonomy

Catherine II’s reign (1762–1796) marked a turning point for Ukraine. Her vision centered on centralized imperial rule, uniformity across provinces, and the elimination of autonomous regions. The Cossack Hetmanate, with its unique privileges, was an obstacle to her reforms. In 1764, she abolished the office of the Hetman, replacing it with direct Russian administration under Governor-General Pyotr Rumyantsev. Over the next two decades, the Hetmanate’s military and administrative structures were dismantled, its lands reorganized into imperial provinces, and serfdom imposed on much of the peasantry.

The Impact of Serfdom and Cultural Shifts

The integration of Ukraine into the Russian Empire brought profound social changes. By the late 18th century, nearly 90% of peasants in the former Hetmanate and over half in Sloboda Ukraine were enserfed. Catherine’s 1783 decree formally bound them to landlords, extinguishing the last remnants of Cossack-era freedoms. Some, like the poet Vasyl Kapnist, protested these measures in works such as Ode on Slavery, but resistance was limited. Meanwhile, Ukrainian elites increasingly migrated to St. Petersburg, contributing to imperial administration, military, and culture.

The Partitions of Poland and Ukraine’s Fragmented Future

The partitions of Poland (1772, 1793, 1795) reshaped Ukraine’s political landscape. Russia absorbed vast territories, including Right-Bank Ukraine, Volhynia, and Podolia, while Austria took Galicia. These divisions created lasting ethnic and religious complexities. Jews, Poles, and Ukrainians now lived under different imperial systems, with Russia enforcing the “Pale of Settlement” to restrict Jewish mobility. The partitions also increased the Ukrainian population within the Russian Empire from 13% to 22%, altering its demographic balance.

The Legacy of 18th-Century Transformations

The late 18th century set the stage for modern Eastern Europe. Russia’s expansion established its dominance over the Black Sea and much of Ukraine, while the partitions of Poland introduced new tensions among empires. The suppression of Cossack autonomy and the spread of serfdom entrenched social hierarchies that would fuel future unrest. Meanwhile, the Enlightenment’s contradictory legacy—rational reform paired with imperial conquest—left a complex imprint on the region’s intellectual and political development. These changes reverberate today, as Ukraine remains a focal point of geopolitical struggles rooted in this pivotal era.

By weaving together military conquest, Enlightenment ideology, and social transformation, the late 18th century redefined Eastern Europe’s destiny—a legacy still visible in its borders and conflicts.