The Aftermath of the First Zhili-Fengtian War

The First Zhili-Fengtian War (1922) marked a pivotal moment in China’s warlord era, reshaping the balance of power between rival militarist factions. Following their defeat, the Fengtian Clique, led by Zhang Zuolin, retreated to Manchuria, where they retained significant influence under Japanese patronage. Meanwhile, the victorious Zhili Clique, now dominating the Beijing government, soon fractured due to internal power struggles between its Baoding and Luoyang factions.

Zhang Zuolin, though humbled by his loss, was far from defeated. Recognizing the inadequacies of his traditional forces against the more disciplined Zhili armies, he embarked on an ambitious military modernization campaign. On July 24, 1922, he established the “Three Eastern Provinces Army Reorganization Department” in Fengtian (modern Shenyang), consolidating control over Manchuria’s fragmented military units.

Military Reforms and Expansion

Zhang Zuolin’s reforms were sweeping. He purged ineffective troops, streamlined command structures, and adopted a “quality over quantity” approach. The Fengtian Army was reorganized into three divisions, 27 infantry brigades, and five cavalry brigades, totaling approximately 250,000 men. Artillery and specialized units were expanded, including two independent artillery brigades and a heavy artillery regiment.

To professionalize his forces, Zhang promoted officers with formal military training, particularly those educated in Japan, such as Jiang Dengxuan and Han Linchun. The Fengtian Military Academy (Northeast Lecture Hall) became a key institution for officer training, with Zhang’s son, Zhang Xueliang, playing a prominent role. Modern weaponry was imported from Europe, including 250–300 advanced aircraft from Germany and Italy, forming a formidable air force. Naval development followed suit, with the creation of a small but capable fleet.

Industrial capacity surged under the oversight of Yang Yuting, who expanded the Fengtian Arsenal to produce 150 artillery pieces, 60,000 rifles, and over 1,000 machine guns annually. Infrastructure improvements—roads, railways, and wireless communications—enhanced logistical efficiency. However, these militarization efforts came at a heavy cost to Manchuria’s populace, as taxes soared and unbacked currency (Fengtian notes) flooded the economy.

Japanese Backing and Strategic Maneuvers

Japan’s imperialist ambitions in Manchuria made it a natural ally for Zhang Zuolin. Between 1922 and 1923, Tokyo supplied the Fengtian Clique with vast quantities of arms, including 20,000 rifles, artillery, and aircraft, often at discounted prices. In September 1923, Zhang sought explicit assurances from Japan: Would Tokyo intervene if the Zhili attacked Manchuria? Japan demurred on direct involvement but warned against threats to its interests in the region.

The Anti-Zhili “Triangular Alliance”

While strengthening his base, Zhang Zuolin cultivated alliances with two other major anti-Zhili forces: the remnants of Duan Qirui’s Anhui Clique and Sun Yat-sen’s Kuomintang (KMT) in Guangdong. This “Triangular Alliance” (粤皖奉同盟) had roots in earlier collaborations. As early as 1919, Sun Yat-sen and Duan Qirui explored cooperation against their common Zhili adversaries. After the Anhui Clique’s defeat in the 1920 Zhili-Anhui War, Sun saw opportunity in aligning with Duan’s network and Zhang’s militarized frontier.

By 1922, the alliance took concrete shape. Zhang sent emissaries to Sun Yat-sen, while Sun dispatched diplomats like Wang Jingwei to Fengtian. Meanwhile, Duan Qirui’s lieutenants, notably the ambitious Xu Shuzheng, brokered deals between the factions. The trio agreed on a post-victory power-sharing arrangement: Sun as president, Duan as vice president, and Liang Shiyi as premier.

The First Test: 1922 Zhili-Fengtian War

The alliance’s first major test came during the 1922 Zhili-Fengtian War. Zhang expected coordinated strikes from Sun’s forces in the south and Anhui loyalists in Zhejiang. However, Sun’s campaign stalled due to opposition from Guangdong warlord Chen Jiongming, while Duan’s faction, sensing Japan’s reluctance to back Zhang, remained passive. Isolated, the Fengtian Army suffered a swift defeat.

Revival and the Road to Renewed Conflict

Undeterred, the Triangular Alliance regrouped. Sun Yat-sen, now exiled to Shanghai after Chen Jiongming’s betrayal, collaborated with Xu Shuzheng in a 1922 joint campaign to seize Fujian. They established a short-lived “Military Government for National Reconstruction,” though internal dissent and Zhili counterattacks soon dismantled it.

By 1924, the alliance had matured. Secret meetings—including the famed “Three Young Masters” summit between Sun Yat-sen’s son Sun Fo, Zhang Xueliang, and Lu Yongxiang’s son Lu Xiaojia—solidified military coordination. The stage was set for the Second Zhili-Fengtian War, with the Fengtian Clique poised to challenge Zhili dominance once more.

Legacy and Historical Significance

The Fengtian Clique’s resurgence and the Anti-Zhili Alliance underscored the fluidity of warlord politics. Zhang Zuolin’s reforms demonstrated how regional militarists could harness foreign support and institutional modernization to sustain power. Meanwhile, the alliance revealed the pragmatic, often uneasy partnerships that defined the era—ideological foes like Sun Yat-sen and Zhang Zuolin united by shared enemies.

Ultimately, these maneuvers set the tone for the turbulent mid-1920s, culminating in the 1924 Jiangsu-Zhejiang War and the fall of the Zhili regime. For historians, this period illustrates the interplay of militarization, diplomacy, and factionalism that eroded China’s unity, paving the way for the Northern Expedition and the rise of Chiang Kai-shek.