The Ming Dynasty and the Three Major Jurchen Groups

The Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) witnessed a crucial period in the development of the Jurchen people, who would later establish the Qing Dynasty. During this era, the Jurchen were divided into three major groups: the Wild Jurchen (Yeren Nüzhen), the Jianzhou Jurchen, and the Haixi Jurchen. Among these, the Jianzhou Jurchen emerged as the most advanced group, eventually unifying all Jurchen tribes to form what would become the Manchu people.

This unification process under the Jianzhou Jurchen laid the foundation for the establishment of the Qing Dynasty in 1636, marking a significant new chapter in Chinese history. The Ming government’s policies toward these frontier tribes, particularly through institutions like the Nurgan Regional Military Commission, played a pivotal role in shaping Jurchen development during this period.

Establishment of the Nurgan Regional Military Commission

The Ming government’s expansion into Northeast Asia began in earnest during the Hongwu era (1368-1398). In 1368, Ming forces under Xu Da captured the Yuan capital (modern Beijing), forcing the Yuan emperor to flee north. By 1387, Ming armies had pushed into the Songhua River region, defeating the Yuan loyalist Naha chu. These military campaigns gradually extended Ming influence into Northeast Asia.

The Yongle Emperor (r. 1403-1424) significantly intensified efforts to incorporate Jurchen territories. In 1403, the Ming sent envoys to the Nurgan region (near modern Tyr, Russia) to establish relations with local tribes. The following year saw the establishment of the Nurgan Guard after local chieftains submitted to Ming authority. Between 1404-1409, the Ming established over one hundred guards throughout the Heilongjiang River basin and coastal regions.

In 1409, the Ming elevated its administrative presence by creating the Nurgan Regional Military Commission at Tyr, appointing Kang Wang as deputy commissioner. Unlike the native chieftain (tusi) system used in southwest China, the Nurgan Commission employed rotating officials who periodically traveled to administer the region rather than maintaining permanent garrisons. This system proved effective in maintaining Ming influence while accounting for logistical challenges in the remote frontier.

The commission’s responsibilities included:
– Overseeing tributary relations with Jurchen tribes
– Protecting tribute missions traveling to and from the Ming court
– Facilitating economic and cultural exchanges

By the Yongle era’s end, the Ming had established 179 guards in the Northeast, expanding to 384 by the Wanli period (1573-1620). The Ming maintained these relations through a system of official appointments, granting seals, patents of appointment, and official robes to Jurchen leaders. Tribute missions brought local products like gyrfalcons, sable furs, and black foxes to the Ming court, while the Ming provided gifts of clothing, grain, and household goods in return.

Jianzhou and Haixi Jurchen: The Path to Unification

While managing the distant Nurgan region, the Ming also cultivated relations with Jurchen groups closer to the Korean border. In 1403, the Ming established the Jianzhou Guard under the leadership of Aha chu, a former Yuan dynasty official. This marked the origin of the Jianzhou Jurchen designation, named after the ancient Balhae kingdom’s Jianzhou region.

The Jianzhou Jurchen developed a special relationship with the Ming court. Historical records suggest two of Yongle’s consorts came from Jianzhou families – one being Aha chu’s daughter. These marital ties strengthened Jianzhou loyalty to the Ming. Aha chu’s descendants received Ming surnames (Li) and participated in campaigns against the Mongols.

The Jianzhou underwent several migrations during the 15th century due to conflicts with Koreans and other Jurchen groups. By the 1440s, they settled in the fertile Hunjiang and Suzi River valleys between Liaodong and Korea. This strategic location facilitated cultural and economic exchanges that would prove crucial to their later development.

Meanwhile, the Haixi Jurchen inhabited the Songhua River region. The name “Haixi” originated from Yuan dynasty administrative titles. The Ming first established the Wuzhe Guard in 1403 for Hulun River region tribes. Like the Jianzhou, the Haixi gradually migrated southward due to pressure from northern tribes, eventually forming the four Hulun tribes (Hada, Ula, Yehe, and Hoifa) by the mid-Ming period.

These tribes maintained tributary relations with the Ming, using designated markets at Guangshun Pass (for Hada, called the “Southern Pass”) and Zhenbei Pass (for Yehe, the “Northern Pass”). Their position between the Mongols and Jianzhou made them important Ming allies in frontier defense.

The Tribute and Trade System

The Ming managed Jurchen relations through a carefully regulated tribute and trade system that served political and economic purposes. The system reflected both the Jurchen’s attraction to Chinese goods and the Ming’s strategy of “using trade as means of control without resorting to military force.”

Tribute missions followed strict protocols:
– Fixed routes: Jianzhou used Fushun, Haixi used Kaiyuan
– Limited personnel: Initially 100 per guard, later 500 for Jianzhou, 1000 for Haixi
– Set schedules: Annual missions between October-December
– Verification through official patents and seals

The Ming established horse markets at Kaiyuan, Guangning, and later Fushun to facilitate trade. These markets had:
– Official supervision with interpreters
– Fixed commodity prices (e.g., superior horses exchanged for 8 bolts of silk)
– Restrictions on strategic goods like iron tools
– Tax collection (e.g., 0.6 taels per horse)

Initially focused on official trade, these markets increasingly saw private commerce as well. By the late 16th century, the Fushun market recorded transactions of over 1,000 iron plowshares in a single day, despite Ming restrictions on iron exports. The Jurchen reportedly melted down iron implements to make weapons, demonstrating how trade contributed to their military development.

Control over tribute patents became a source of power and conflict among Jurchen leaders. The Ming also constructed an extensive defense system along the Liaodong frontier, including:
– 1,137 watchtowers manned by 5 soldiers each
– 90 fortresses housing 300-500 troops
– A 2,300 li (≈760 mile) border wall
– Key passes like Guangshun and Zhenbei Gates

However, by the late Ming, deteriorating walls, garrison shortages, and corruption weakened these defenses, leaving the frontier vulnerable to Jurchen raids.

Social and Economic Development of the Jurchen

The various Jurchen groups exhibited different levels of socioeconomic development during the Ming period:

Economic Activities:
– Jianzhou and Haixi practiced agriculture alongside hunting
– Wild Jurchen relied primarily on hunting and fishing
– Gathering of ginseng, pine nuts, and mushrooms remained important
– Iron tools acquired through trade boosted agricultural productivity

Social Organization:
– Clan-based structures gave way to territorial villages
– Slavery became widespread, with most slaves captured Han Chinese or Koreans
– Slave prices ranged from 10-20 cattle/horses per person
– Slaves performed agricultural, domestic, and hunting labor
– Frequent slave escapes and rebellions occurred

Military Development:
– Iron weapons replaced bone arrows through trade and local production
– Some groups developed metalworking skills like quenching
– Raiding for slaves and resources became common

The Jianzhou Jurchen’s agricultural development and access to iron tools through Fushun markets gave them significant advantages. By settling in fertile valleys between Korea and Liaodong, they positioned themselves to absorb advanced technologies and ideas from both civilizations while maintaining their martial traditions.

This socioeconomic foundation, combined with the political and military experience gained through the Ming tribute system, enabled the Jianzhou Jurchen to eventually unify all Jurchen groups under Nurhaci in the late 16th century, setting the stage for the rise of the Qing Dynasty.

The Ming period thus represents a transformative era in Jurchen history, marking their evolution from scattered tribes to a unified force capable of conquering China. The institutions and relationships developed during this time – from the Nurgan Commission to the tribute trade system – profoundly shaped Manchuria’s integration into the Chinese imperial system while preserving distinct Jurchen cultural and military traditions that would later characterize Qing rule.