The Ascendancy of Wu Peifu in the Zhili Clique

Following the Zhili-Anhui War of 1920, Wu Peifu rapidly emerged as a dominant figure within the Zhili military clique. His military successes against the Anhui faction earned him considerable prestige, catching the attention of British and American imperialist powers who saw in him a potential ally. As Sun Yat-sen astutely observed, Wu Peifu presented himself as a champion of nationalist causes, criticizing the corruption of the Beijing government and advocating for a national assembly to resolve political issues. However, his true ambitions mirrored those of Yuan Shikai—to consolidate personal power. Western powers, recognizing this ambition, saw an opportunity to manipulate Wu for their own interests, offering him support while pursuing their economic and political agendas in China.

Wu Peifu’s growing confidence, bolstered by his military achievements and foreign backing, made him increasingly sensitive to perceived slights from rival warlords, particularly Zhang Zuolin of the Fengtian clique. When Liang Shiyi became premier with Zhang’s support and began favoring Fengtian interests while restricting Zhili expansion, Wu saw an opportunity to retaliate.

The Escalating Rivalry Between Zhili and Fengtian

Zhang Zuolin viewed Wu Peifu’s military buildup in Luoyang as a direct threat. The Fengtian leader, aware of Wu’s ambitions, took precautions to counter his influence. As tensions between the two cliques intensified, Zhang sought closer ties with Japan, which saw in him a means to secure its interests in Manchuria. In May 1921, the Japanese cabinet formalized its policy of supporting Zhang to maintain Japan’s “special position” in Manchuria and Mongolia. With Japanese backing, Zhang felt emboldened to challenge the Zhili faction, supporting Liang Shiyi’s premiership despite opposition from Wu Peifu.

The political struggle reached a boiling point during the Washington Conference (1921–1922), where the Shandong Question—a contentious issue involving Japanese control of the Jiaozhou-Jinan Railway—dominated Sino-Japanese negotiations. Chinese representatives pushed for reclaiming the railway through debt repayment, a stance that garnered widespread public support. However, when reports surfaced that Liang Shiyi had secretly agreed to Japanese demands for a loan to “redeem” the railway, public outrage erupted. Wu Peifu seized on this scandal to undermine Liang’s government, launching a fierce propaganda campaign against him.

The Propaganda War and Political Maneuvering

Wu Peifu’s attacks on Liang Shiyi were relentless. He accused the premier of treason and collusion with Japan, framing himself as a defender of national sovereignty. Through a series of telegrams (later dubbed the “telegram war”), Wu rallied Zhili-aligned military governors to his cause, pressuring President Xu Shichang to dismiss Liang. Despite Liang’s attempts to defend himself—including offering a personal donation to the railway redemption fund—his credibility was irreparably damaged. Public sentiment, already inflamed by anti-Japanese nationalism, turned decisively against him.

Zhang Zuolin initially remained aloof but eventually intervened to protect Liang, signaling Fengtian’s opposition to Wu’s campaign. This marked a turning point in the conflict, as the political struggle between Zhili and Fengtian factions escalated into open hostility. Wu, undeterred, intensified his military preparations, mobilizing troops along key railway lines and securing financial resources through coercive measures, including the seizure of salt tax revenues.

The Role of Foreign Powers

The Zhili-Fengtian rivalry was deeply intertwined with the geopolitical interests of foreign powers. Britain and the United States, wary of Japanese expansion in China, tacitly supported Wu Peifu as a counterbalance to Zhang Zuolin’s pro-Japanese stance. American and British advisors worked closely with Wu, while their governments provided indirect military assistance, including arms shipments. Meanwhile, Japan, though sympathetic to Zhang, remained cautious in its support, wary of provoking Western powers and destabilizing the fragile post-Washington Conference order.

The Path to War

By early 1922, the conflict between Zhili and Fengtian had reached a point of no return. Wu Peifu’s unrelenting pressure forced Liang Shiyi to resign in April, but the political vacuum only heightened tensions. Zhang Zuolin, unwilling to accept Zhili dominance, began preparing for military confrontation. As both sides amassed troops near strategic locations like Tianjin and Shanhaiguan, foreign powers grew anxious. The international community, particularly Britain and Japan, sought to avoid direct involvement but remained deeply invested in the outcome.

In the end, the First Zhili-Fengtian War (1922) was not just a clash of warlords but a proxy struggle between competing imperialist interests. Wu Peifu’s rise and his confrontation with Zhang Zuolin underscored the fragmentation of Chinese politics and the enduring influence of foreign powers in shaping the country’s destiny. The war’s aftermath would further redefine the balance of power in northern China, setting the stage for future conflicts.

Legacy and Historical Significance

The Zhili-Fengtian conflict highlighted the weaknesses of China’s republican government, which remained hostage to militarist factions and foreign manipulation. Wu Peifu’s brief ascendancy demonstrated the potential for nationalist rhetoric to mobilize public opinion, but his reliance on warlord politics and foreign backing ultimately undermined his credibility. Meanwhile, Zhang Zuolin’s reliance on Japanese support reinforced regional divisions and sowed the seeds for future confrontations.

The war also exposed the limitations of international diplomacy in restraining imperialist rivalries. Despite the Washington Conference’s emphasis on cooperation, the competing interests of Britain, the United States, and Japan continued to destabilize China. The First Zhili-Fengtian War thus stands as a pivotal moment in China’s early 20th-century history, illustrating the complex interplay of nationalism, militarism, and imperialism that would shape the country’s turbulent path toward unification and independence.